wealbk01-第31章

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is　somewhat　of　hardship　in　this　matter　of　certificates；〃　says　the

same　very　intelligent　author　in　his　History　of　the　Poor　Laws；　〃by

putting　it　in　the　power　of　a　parish　officer　to　imprison　a　man　as

it　were　for　life；　however　inconvenient　it　may　be　for　him　to

continue　at　that　place　where　he　has　had　the　misfortune　to　acquire

what　is　called　a　settlement；　or　whatever　advantage　he　may　propose

to　himself　by　living　elsewhere。〃

　　　　　Though　a　certificate　carries　along　with　it　no　testimonial　of

good　behaviour；　and　certifies　nothing　but　that　the　person　belongs

to　the　parish　to　which　he　really　does　belong；　it　is　altogether

discretionary　in　the　parish　officers　either　to　grant　or　to　refuse

it。　A　mandamus　was　once　moved　for；　says　Doctor　Burn；　to　compel

the　churchwardens　and　overseers　to　sign　a　certificate；　but　the

court　of　King's　Bench　rejected　the　motion　as　a　very　strange

attempt。

　　　　　The　very　unequal　price　of　labour　which　we　frequently　find　in

England　in　places　at　no　great　distance　from　one　another　is

probably　owing　to　the　obstruction　which　the　law　of　settlements

gives　to　a　poor　man　who　would　carry　his　industry　from　one　parish

to　another　without　a　certificate。　A　single　man；　indeed；　who　is

healthy　and　industrious；　may　sometimes　reside　by　sufferance

without　one；　but　a　man　with　a　wife　and　family　who　should　attempt

to　do　so　would　in　most　parishes　be　sure　of　being　removed；　and　if

the　single　man　should　afterwards　marry；　he　would　generally　be

removed　likewise。　The　scarcity　of　hands　in　one　parish；　therefore；

cannot　always　be　relieved　by　their　superabundance　in　another；　as

it　is　constantly　in　Scotland；　and；　I　believe；　in　all　other

countries　where　there　is　no　difficulty　of　settlement。　In　such

countries；　though　wages　may　sometimes　rise　a　little　in　the

neighbourhood　of　a　great　town；　or　wherever　else　there　is　an

extraordinary　demand　for　labour；　and　sink　gradually　as　the

distance　from　such　places　increases；　till　they　fall　back　to　the

common　rate　of　the　country；　yet　we　never　meet　with　those　sudden

and　unaccountable　differences　in　the　wages　of　neighbouring　places

which　we　sometimes　find　in　England；　where　it　is　often　more

difficult　for　a　poor　man　to　pass　the　artificial　boundary　of　a

parish　than　an　arm　of　the　sea　or　a　ridge　of　high　mountains；

natural　boundaries　which　sometimes　separate　very　distinctly

different　rates　of　wages　in　other　countries。

　　　　　To　remove　a　man　who　has　committed　no　misdemeanour　from　the

parish　where　he　chooses　to　reside　is　an　evident　violation　of

natural　liberty　and　justice。　The　common　people　of　England；

however；　so　jealous　of　their　liberty；　but　like　the　common　people

of　most　other　countries　never　rightly　understanding　wherein　it

consists；　have　now　for　more　than　a　century　together　suffered

themselves　to　be　exposed　to　this　oppression　without　a　remedy。

Though　men　of　reflection；　too；　have　sometimes　complained　of　the

law　of　settlements　as　a　public　grievance；　yet　it　has　never　been

the　object　of　any　general　popular　clamour；　such　as　that　against

general　warrants；　an　abusive　practice　undoubtedly；　but　such　a　one

as　was　not　likely　to　occasion　any　general　oppression。　There　is

scarce　a　poor　man　in　England　of　forty　years　of　age；　I　will

venture　to　say；　who　has　not　in　some　part　of　his　life　felt　himself

most　cruelly　oppressed　by　this　illcontrived　law　of　settlements。

　　　　　I　shall　conclude　this　long　chapter　with　observing　that；

though　anciently　it　was　usual　to　rate　wages；　first　by　general

laws　extending　over　the　whole　kingdom；　and　afterwards　by

particular　orders　of　the　justices　of　peace　in　every　particular

county；　both　these　practices　have　now　gone　entirely　into　disuse。

〃By　the　experience　of　above　four　hundred　years；〃　says　Doctor

Burn；　〃it　seems　time　to　lay　aside　all　endeavours　to　bring　under

strict　regulations；　what　in　its　own　nature　seems　incapable　of

minute　limitation；　for　if　all　persons　in　the　same　kind　of　work

were　to　receive　equal　wages；　there　would　be　no　emulation；　and　no

room　left　for　industry　or　ingenuity。〃

　　　　　Particular　Acts　of　Parliament；　however；　still　attempt

sometimes　to　regulate　wages　in　particular　trades　and　in

particular　places。　Thus　the　8th　of　George　III　prohibits　under

heavy　penalties　all　master　tailors　in　London；　and　five　miles

round　it；　from　giving；　and　their　workmen　from　accepting；　more

than　two　shillings　and　sevenpence　halfpenny　a　day；　except　in　the

case　of　a　general　mourning。　Whenever　the　legislature　attempts　to

regulate　the　differences　between　masters　and　their　workmen；　its

counsellors　are　always　the　masters。　When　the　regulation；

therefore；　is　in　favour　of　the　workmen；　it　is　always　just　and

equitable；　but　it　is　sometimes　otherwise　when　in　favour　of　the

masters。　Thus　the　law　which　obliges　the　masters　in　several

different　trades　to　pay　their　workmen　in　money　and　not　in　goods

is　quite　just　and　equitable。　It　imposes　no　real　hardship　upon　the

masters。　It　only　obliges　them　to　pay　that　value　in　money；　which

they　pretended　to　pay；　but　did　not　always　really　pay；　in　goods。

This　law　is　in　favour　of　the　workmen：　but　the　8th　of　George　III

is　in　favour　of　the　masters。　When　masters　combine　together　in

order　to　reduce　the　wages　of　their　workmen；　they　commonly　enter

into　a　private　bond　or　agreement　not　to　give　more　than　a　certain

wage　under　a　certain　penalty。　Were　the　workmen　to　enter　into　a

contrary　combination　of　the　same　kind；　not　to　accept　of　a　certain

wage　under　a　certain　penalty；　the　law　would　punish　them　very

severely；　and　if　it　dealt　impartially；　it　would　treat　the　masters

in　the　same　manner。　But　the　8th　of　George　III　enforces　by　law

that　very　regulation　which　masters　sometimes　attempt　to　establish

by　such　combinations。　The　complaint　of　the　workmen；　that　it　puts

the　ablest　and　most　industrious　upon　the　same　footing　with　an

ordinary　workman；　seems　perfectly　well　founded。

　　　　　In　ancient　times；　too；　it　was　usual　to　attempt　to　regulate

the　profits　of　merchants　and　other　dealers；　by　rating　the　price

both　of　provisions　and　other　goods。　The　assize　of　bread　is；　so

far　as　I　know；　the　only　remnant　of　this　ancient　usage。　Where

there　is　an　exclusive　corporation；　it　may　perhaps　be　proper　to

regulate　the　price　of　the　first　necessary　of　life。　But　where

there　is　none；　the　competition　will　regulate　it　much　better　than

any　assize。　The　method　of　fixing　the　assize　of　bread　established

by　the　31st　of　George　II　could　not　be　put　in　practice　in

Scotland；　on　account　of　a　defect　in　the　law；　its　execution

depending　upon　the　office　of　a　clerk　of　the　market；　which　does

not　exist　there。　This　defect　was　not　remedied　till　the　3rd　of

George　III。　The　want　of　an　assize　occasioned　no　sensible

inconveniency；　and　the　establishment　of　one；　in　the　few　places

where　it　has　yet　taken　place；　has　produced　no　sensible　advantage。

In　the　greater　part　of　the　towns　of　Scotland；　however；　there　is

an　incorporation　of　bakers　who　claim　exclusive　privileges；　though

they　are　not　very　strictly　guarded。

　　　　　The　proportion　between　the　different　rates　both　of　wages　and

profit　in　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；　seems

not　to　be　much　affected；　as　has　already　been　observed；　by　the

riches　or　poverty；　the　advancing；　stationary；　or　declining　state

of　the　society。　Such　revolutions　in　the　public　welfare；　though

they　affect　the　general　rates　both　of　wages　and　profit；　must　in

the　end　affect　them　equally　in　all　different　employments。　The

proportion　between　them；　therefore；　must　remain　the　same；　and

cannot　well　be　altered；　at　least　for　any　considerable　time；　by

any　such　revolutions。　　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　XI



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Rent　of　Land　



　　　　　RENT；　considered　as　the　price　paid　for　the　use　of　land；　is

naturally　the　highest　which　the　tenant　can　afford　to　pay　in　the

actual　circumstances　of　the　land。　In　adjusting　the　terms　of　the

lease；　the　landlord　endeavours　to　leave　him　no　greater　share　of

the　produce　than　what　is　sufficient　to　keep　up　the　stock　from

which　he　furnishes　the　seed；　pays　the　labour；　and　purchases　and

maintains　the　cattle　and　other　instruments　of　husbandry；　together

with　the　ordinary　profits　of　farming　stock　in　the　neighbourhood。

This　is　evidently　the　smallest　share　with　which　the　tenant　can

content　himself　without　being　a　loser；　and　the　landlord　seldom

means　to　leave　him　any　more。　Whatever　part　of　the　produce；　or；

what　is　the　same　thing；　whatever　part　of　its　price　is　over　and

above　this　share；　he　naturally　endeavours　to　reserve　to　himself

as　the　rent　of　his　land；　which　is　evidently　the　highest　the

tenant　can　afford　to　pay　in　the　actual　circumstances　of　the　land。

Sometimes；　indeed；　the　liberality；　more　frequently　the　ignorance；

of　the　landlord；　makes　him　accept　of　somewhat　less　than　this

portion；　and　sometimes　too；　though　more　rarely；　the　ignorance　of

the　tenant　makes　him　undertake　to　pay　somewhat　more；　or　to

content　himself　with　somewhat　less　than　the　ordinary　profits　of

farming　stock　in　the　neighbourhood。　This　portion；　however；　may

still　be　considered　as　the　natural　rent　of　land；　or　the　rent　for

which　it　is　naturally　meant　that　land　should　for　the　most　part　be

let。

　　　　　The　rent　of　land；　it　may　be　thought；　is　frequently　no　more

than　a　reasonable　profit　or　interest　for　the　stock　laid　out　by

the　landlord　upon　its　improvement。　This；　no　doubt；　may　be　partly

the　case　upon　some　occasions；　for　it　can　scarce　ever　be　more　than

partly　the　case。　The　landlord　demands　a　rent　even　for　unimproved

land；　and　the　supposed　interest　or　profit　upon　the　expense　of

improvement　is　generally　an　addition　to　this　original　rent。　Those

improvements；　besides；　are　not　always　made　by　the　stock　of　the

landlord；　but　sometimes　by　that　of　the　tenant。　When　the　lease

comes　to　be　renewed；　however；　the　landlord　commonly　demands　the

same　augmentation　of　rent　as　if　they　had　been　all　made　by　his

own。

　　　　　He　sometimes　demands　rent　for　what　is　altogether　incapable

of　human　improvement。　Kelp　is　a　species　of　sea…weed；　which；　when

burnt；　yields　an　alkaline　salt；　useful　for　making　glass；　soap；

and　for　several　other　purposes。　It　grows　in　several　parts　of

Great　Britain；　particularly　in　Scotland；　upon　such　rocks　only　as

lie　within　the　high　water　mark；　which　are　twice　every　day　covered

with　the　sea；　and　of　which　the　produce；　therefore；　was　never

augmented　by　human　industry。　The　landlord；　however；　whose　estate

is　bounded　by　a　kelp　shore　of　this　kind；　demands　a　rent　for　it　as

much　as　for　his　corn　fields。

　　　　　The　sea　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the　islands　of　Shetland　is

more　than　commonly　abundant　in　fish；　which　makes　a　great　part　of

the　subsistence　of　their　inhabitants。　But　in　order　to　profit　by

the　produce　of　the　water；　they　must　have　a　habitation　upon　the

neighbouring　land。　The　rent　of　the　landlord　is　in　proportion；　not

to　what　the　farmer　can　make　by　the　land；　but　to　what　he　can　make

both　by　the　land　and　by　the　water。　It　is　partly　paid　in　sea…fish；

and　one　of　the　very　few　instances　in