wealbk01-第2章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！



　　　　　In　every　other　art　and　manufacture；　the　effects　of　the

division　of　labour　are　similar　to　what　they　are　in　this　very

trifling　one；　though；　in　many　of　them；　the　labour　can　neither　be

so　much　subdivided；　nor　reduced　to　so　great　a　simplicity　of

operation。　The　division　of　labour；　however；　so　far　as　it　can　be

introduced；　occasions；　in　every　art；　a　proportionable　increase　of

the　productive　powers　of　labour。　The　separation　of　different

trades　and　employments　from　one　another　seems　to　have　taken　place

in　consequence　of　this　advantage。　This　separation；　too；　is

generally　called　furthest　in　those　countries　which　enjoy　the

highest　degree　of　industry　and　improvement；　what　is　the　work　of

one　man　in　a　rude　state　of　society　being　generally　that　of

several　in　an　improved　one。　In　every　improved　society；　the　farmer

is　generally　nothing　but　a　farmer；　the　manufacturer；　nothing　but

a　manufacturer。　The　labour；　too；　which　is　necessary　to　produce

any　one　complete　manufacture　is　almost　always　divided　among　a

great　number　of　hands。　How　many　different　trades　are　employed　in

each　branch　of　the　linen　and　woollen　manufactures　from　the

growers　of　the　flax　and　the　wool；　to　the　bleachers　and　smoothers

of　the　linen；　or　to　the　dyers　and　dressers　of　the　cloth！　The

nature　of　agriculture；　indeed；　does　not　admit　of　so　many

subdivisions　of　labour；　nor　of　so　complete　a　separation　of　one

business　from　another；　as　manufactures。　It　is　impossible　to

separate　so　entirely　the　business　of　the　grazier　from　that　of　the

corn…farmer　as　the　trade　of　the　carpenter　is　commonly　separated

from　that　of　the　smith。　The　spinner　is　almost　always　a　distinct

person　from　the　weaver；　but　the　ploughman；　the　harrower；　the

sower　of　the　seed；　and　the　reaper　of　the　corn；　are　often　the

same。　The　occasions　for　those　different　sorts　of　labour　returning

with　the　different　seasons　of　the　year；　it　is　impossible　that　one

man　should　be　constantly　employed　in　any　one　of　them。　This

impossibility　of　making　so　complete　and　entire　a　separation　of

all　the　different　branches　of　labour　employed　in　agriculture　is

perhaps　the　reason　why　the　improvement　of　the　productive　powers

of　labour　in　this　art　does　not　always　keep　pace　with　their

improvement　in　manufactures。　The　most　opulent　nations；　indeed；

generally　excel　all　their　neighbours　in　agriculture　as　well　as　in

manufactures；　but　they　are　commonly　more　distinguished　by　their

superiority　in　the　latter　than　in　the　former。　Their　lands　are　in

general　better　cultivated；　and　having　more　labour　and　expense

bestowed　upon　them；　produce　more　in　proportion　to　the　extent　and

natural　fertility　of　the　ground。　But　this　superiority　of　produce

is　seldom　much　more　than　in　proportion　to　the　superiority　of

labour　and　expense。　In　agriculture；　the　labour　of　the　rich

country　is　not　always　much　more　productive　than　that　of　the　poor；

or；　at　least；　it　is　never　so　much　more　productive　as　it　commonly

is　in　manufactures。　The　corn　of　the　rich　country；　therefore；　will

not　always；　in　the　same　degree　of　goodness；　come　cheaper　to

market　than　that　of　the　poor。　The　corn　of　Poland；　in　the　same

degree　of　goodness；　is　as　cheap　as　that　of　France；

notwithstanding　the　superior　opulence　and　improvement　of　the

latter　country。　The　corn　of　France　is；　in　the　corn　provinces；

fully　as　good；　and　in　most　years　nearly　about　the　same　price　with

the　corn　of　England；　though；　in　opulence　and　improvement；　France

is　perhaps　inferior　to　England。　The　corn…lands　of　England；

however；　are　better　cultivated　than　those　of　France；　and　the

corn…lands　of　France　are　said　to　be　much　better　cultivated　than

those　of　Poland。　But　though　the　poor　country；　notwithstanding　the

inferiority　of　its　cultivation；　can；　in　some　measure；　rival　the

rich　in　the　cheapness　and　goodness　of　its　corn；　it　can　pretend　to

no　such　competition　in　its　manufactures；　at　least　if　those

manufactures　suit　the　soil；　climate；　and　situation　of　the　rich

country。　The　silks　of　France　are　better　and　cheaper　than　those　of

England；　because　the　silk　manufacture；　at　least　under　the　present

high　duties　upon　the　importation　of　raw　silk；　does　not　so　well

suit　the　climate　of　England　as　that　of　France。　But　the　hardware

and　the　coarse　woollens　of　England　are　beyond　all　comparison

superior　to　those　of　France；　and　much　cheaper　too　in　the　same

degree　of　goodness。　In　Poland　there　are　said　to　be　scarce　any

manufactures　of　any　kind；　a　few　of　those　coarser　household

manufactures　excepted；　without　which　no　country　can　well　subsist。

　　　　　This　great　increase　of　the　quantity　of　work　which；　in

consequence　of　the　division　of　labour；　the　same　number　of　people

are　capable　of　performing；　is　owing　to　three　different

circumstances；　first；　to　the　increase　of　dexterity　in　every

particular　workman；　secondly；　to　the　saving　of　the　time　which　is

commonly　lost　in　passing　from　one　species　of　work　to　another；　and

lastly；　to　the　invention　of　a　great　number　of　machines　which

facilitate　and　abridge　labour；　and　enable　one　man　to　do　the　work

of　many。

　　　　　First；　the　improvement　of　the　dexterity　of　the　workman

necessarily　increases　the　quantity　of　the　work　he　can　perform；

and　the　division　of　labour；　by　reducing　every　man's　business　to

some　one　simple　operation；　and　by　making　this　operation　the　sole

employment　of　his　life；　necessarily　increased　very　much　dexterity

of　the　workman。　A　common　smith；　who；　though　accustomed　to　handle

the　hammer；　has　never　been　used　to　make　nails；　if　upon　some

particular　occasion　he　is　obliged　to　attempt　it；　will　scarce；　I

am　assured；　be　able　to　make　above　two　or　three　hundred　nails　in　a

day；　and　those　too　very　bad　ones。　A　smith　who　has　been　accustomed

to　make　nails；　but　whose　sole　or　principal　business　has　not　been

that　of　a　nailer；　can　seldom　with　his　utmost　diligence　make　more

than　eight　hundred　or　a　thousand　nails　in　a　day。　I　have　seen

several　boys　under　twenty　years　of　age　who　had　never　exercised

any　other　trade　but　that　of　making　nails；　and　who；　when　they

exerted　themselves；　could　make；　each　of　them；　upwards　of　two

thousand　three　hundred　nails　in　a　day。　The　making　of　a　nail；

however；　is　by　no　means　one　of　the　simplest　operations。　The　same

person　blows　the　bellows；　stirs　or　mends　the　fire　as　there　is

occasion；　heats　the　iron；　and　forges　every　part　of　the　nail：　in

forging　the　head　too　he　is　obliged　to　change　his　tools。　The

different　operations　into　which　the　making　of　a　pin；　or　of　a

metal　button；　is　subdivided；　are　all　of　them　much　more　simple；

and　the　dexterity　of　the　person；　of　whose　life　it　has　been　the

sole　business　to　perform　them；　is　usually　much　greater。　The

rapidity　with　which　some　of　the　operations　of　those　manufacturers

are　performed；　exceeds　what　the　human　hand　could；　by　those　who

had　never　seen　them；　be　supposed　capable　of　acquiring。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　advantage　which　is　gained　by　saving　the　time

commonly　lost　in　passing　from　one　sort　of　work　to　another　is　much

greater　than　we　should　at　first　view　be　apt　to　imagine　it。　It　is

impossible　to　pass　very　quickly　from　one　kind　of　work　to　another

that　is　carried　on　in　a　different　place　and　with　quite　different

tools。　A　country　weaver；　who　cultivates　a　small　farm；　must　lose　a

good　deal　of　time　in　passing　from　his　loom　to　the　field；　and　from

the　field　to　his　loom。　When　the　two　trades　can　be　carried　on　in

the　same　workhouse；　the　loss　of　time　is　no　doubt　much　less。　It　is

even　in　this　case；　however；　very　considerable。　A　man　commonly

saunters　a　little　in　turning　his　hand　from　one　sort　of　employment

to　another。　When　he　first　begins　the　new　work　he　is　seldom　very

keen　and　hearty；　his　mind；　as　they　say；　does　not　go　to　it；　and

for　some　time　he　rather　trifles　than　applies　to　good　purpose。　The

habit　of　sauntering　and　of　indolent　careless　application；　which

is　naturally；　or　rather　necessarily　acquired　by　every　country

workman　who　is　obliged　to　change　his　work　and　his　tools　every

half　hour；　and　to　apply　his　hand　in　twenty　different　ways　almost

every　day　of　his　life；　renders　him　almost　always　slothful　and

lazy；　and　incapable　of　any　vigorous　application　even　on　the　most

pressing　occasions。　Independent；　therefore；　of　his　deficiency　in

point　of　dexterity；　this　cause　alone　must　always　reduce

considerably　the　quantity　of　work　which　he　is　capable　of

performing。

　　　　　Thirdly；　and　lastly；　everybody　must　be　sensible　how　much

labour　is　facilitated　and　abridged　by　the　application　of　proper

machinery。　It　is　unnecessary　to　give　any　example。　I　shall　only

observe；　therefore；　that　the　invention　of　all　those　machines　by

which　labour　is　so　much　facilitated　and　abridged　seems　to　have

been　originally　owing　to　the　division　of　labour。　Men　are　much

more　likely　to　discover　easier　and　readier　methods　of　attaining

any　object　when　the　whole　attention　of　their　minds　is　directed

towards　that　single　object　than　when　it　is　dissipated　among　a

great　variety　of　things。　But　in　consequence　of　the　division　of

labour；　the　whole　of　every　man's　attention　comes　naturally　to　be

directed　towards　some　one　very　simple　object。　It　is　naturally　to

be　expected；　therefore；　that　some　one　or　other　of　those　who　are

employed　in　each　particular　branch　of　labour　should　soon　find　out

easier　and　readier　methods　of　performing　their　own　particular

work；　wherever　the　nature　of　it　admits　of　such　improvement。　A

great　part　of　the　machines　made　use　of　in　those　manufactures　in

which　labour　is　most　subdivided；　were　originally　the　inventions

of　common　workmen；　who；　being　each　of　them　employed　in　some　very

simple　operation；　naturally　turned　their　thoughts　towards　finding

out　easier　and　readier　methods　of　performing　it。　Whoever　has　been

much　accustomed　to　visit　such　manufactures　must　frequently　have

been　shown　very　pretty　machines；　which　were　the　inventions　of

such　workmen　in　order　to　facilitate　and　quicken　their　particular

part　of　the　work。　In　the　first　fire…engines；　a　boy　was　constantly

employed　to　open　and　shut　alternately　the　communication　between

the　boiler　and　the　cylinder；　according　as　the　piston　either

ascended　or　descended。　One　of　those　boys；　who　loved　to　play　with

his　companions；　observed　that；　by　tying　a　string　from　the　handle

of　the　valve　which　opened　this　communication　to　another　part　of

the　machine；　the　valve　would　open　and　shut　without　his

assistance；　and　leave　him　at　liberty　to　divert　himself　with　his

playfellows。　One　of　the　greatest　improvements　that　has　been　made

upon　this　machine；　since　it　was　first　invented；　was　in　this

manner　the　discovery　of　a　boy　who　wanted　to　save　his　own　labour。

　　　　　All　the　improvements　in　machinery；　however；　have　by　no　means

been　the　inventions　of　those　who　had　occasion　to　use　the

machines。　Many　improvements　have　been　made　by　the　ingenuity　of

the　makers　of　the　machines；　when　to　make　them　became　the　business

of　a　peculiar　trade；　and　some　by　that　of　those　who　are　called

philosophers　or　men　of　speculation；　whose　trade　it　is　not　to　do

anything；　but　to　observe　everything；　and　who；　u