wealbk01-第18章

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workmen　more　active；　diligent；　and　expeditious　than　where　they

are　low：　in　England；　for　example；　than　in　Scotland；　in　the

neighbourhood　of　great　towns　than　in　remote　country　places。　Some

workmen；　indeed；　when　they　can　earn　in　four　days　what　will

maintain　them　through　the　week；　will　be　idle　the　other　three。

This；　however；　is　by　no　means　the　case　with　the　greater　part。

Workmen；　on　the　contrary；　when　they　are　liberally　paid　by　the

piece；　are　very　apt　to　overwork　themselves；　and　to　ruin　their

health　and　constitution　in　a　few　years。　A　carpenter　in　London；

and　in　some　other　places；　is　not　supposed　to　last　in　his　utmost

vigour　above　eight　years。　Something　of　the　same　kind　happens　in

many　other　trades；　in　which　the　workmen　are　paid　by　the　piece；　as

they　generally　are　in　manufactures；　and　even　in　country　labour；

wherever　wages　are　higher　than　ordinary。　Almost　every　class　of

artificers　is　subject　to　some　peculiar　infirmity　occasioned　by

excessive　application　to　their　peculiar　species　of　work。

Ramuzzini；　an　eminent　Italian　physician；　has　written　a　particular

book　concerning　such　diseases。　We　do　not　reckon　our　soldiers　the

most　industrious　set　of　people　among　us。　Yet　when　soldiers　have

been　employed　in　some　particular　sorts　of　work；　and　liberally

paid　by　the　piece；　their　officers　have　frequently　been　obliged　to

stipulate　with　the　undertaker；　that　they　should　not　be　allowed　to

earn　above　a　certain　sum　every　day；　according　to　the　rate　at

which　they　were　paid。　Till　this　stipulation　was　made；　mutual

emulation　and　the　desire　of　greater　gain　frequently　prompted　them

to　overwork　themselves；　and　to　hurt　their　health　by　excessive

labour。　Excessive　application　during　four　days　of　the　week　is

frequently　the　real　cause　of　the　idleness　of　the　other　three；　so

much　and　so　loudly　complained　of。　Great　labour；　either　of　mind　or

body；　continued　for　several　days　together；　is　in　most　men

naturally　followed　by　a　great　desire　of　relaxation；　which；　if　not

restrained　by　force　or　by　some　strong　necessity；　is　almost

irresistible。　It　is　the　call　of　nature；　which　requires　to　be

relieved　by　some　indulgence；　sometimes　of　ease　only；　but

sometimes；　too；　of　dissipation　and　diversion。　If　it　is　not

complied　with；　the　consequences　are　often　dangerous；　and

sometimes　fatal；　and　such　as　almost　always；　sooner　or　later；

brings　on　the　peculiar　infirmity　of　the　trade。　If　masters　would

always　listen　to　the　dictates　of　reason　and　humanity；　they　have

frequently　occasion　rather　to　moderate　than　to　animate　the

application　of　many　of　their　workmen。　It　will　be　found；　I

believe；　in　every　sort　of　trade；　that　the　man　who　works　so

moderately　as　to　be　able　to　work　constantly　not　only　preserves

his　health　the　longest；　but；　in　the　course　of　the　year；　executes

the　greatest　quantity　of　work。

　　　　　In　cheap　years；　it　is　pretended；　workmen　are　generally　more

idle；　and　in　dear　ones　more　industrious　than　ordinary。　A

plentiful　subsistence；　therefore；　it　has　been　concluded；　relaxes；

and　a　scanty　one　quickens　their　industry。　That　a　little　more

plenty　than　ordinary　may　render　some　workmen　idle；　cannot　well　be

doubted；　but　that　it　should　have　this　effect　upon　the　greater

part；　or　that　men　in　general　should　work　better　when　they　are　ill

fed　than　when　they　are　well　fed；　when　they　are　disheartened　than

when　they　are　in　good　spirits；　when　they　are　frequently　sick　than

when　they　are　generally　in　good　health；　seems　not　very　probable。

Years　of　dearth；　it　is　to　be　observed；　are　generally　among　the

common　people　years　of　sickness　and　mortality；　which　cannot　fail

to　diminish　the　produce　of　their　industry。

　　　　　In　years　of　plenty；　servants　frequently　leave　their　masters；

and　trust　their　subsistence　to　what　they　can　make　by　their　own

industry。　But　the　same　cheapness　of　provisions；　by　increasing　the

fund　which　is　destined　for　the　maintenance　of　servants；

encourages　masters；　farmers　especially；　to　employ　a　greater

number。　Farmers　upon　such　occasions　expect　more　profit　from　their

corn　by　maintaining　a　few　more　labouring　servants　than　by　selling

it　at　a　low　price　in　the　market。　The　demand　for　servants

increases；　while　the　number　of　those　who　offer　to　supply　that

demand　diminishes。　The　price　of　labour；　therefore；　frequently

rises　in　cheap　years。

　　　　　In　years　of　scarcity；　the　difficulty　and　uncertainty　of

subsistence　make　all　such　people　eager　to　return　to　service。　But

the　high　price　of　provisions；　by　diminishing　the　funds　destined

for　the　maintenance　of　servants；　disposes　masters　rather　to

diminish　than　to　increase　the　number　of　those　they　have。　In　dear

years；　too；　poor　independent　workmen　frequently　consume　the

little　stocks　with　which　they　had　used　to　supply　themselves　with

the　materials　of　their　work；　and　are　obliged　to　become　journeymen

for　subsistence。　More　people　want　employment　than　can　easily　get

it；　many　are　willing　to　take　it　upon　lower　terms　than　ordinary；

and　the　wages　of　both　servants　and　journeymen　frequently　sink　in

dear　years。

　　　　　Masters　of　all　sorts；　therefore；　frequently　make　better

bargains　with　their　servants　in　dear　than　in　cheap　years；　and

find　them　more　humble　and　dependent　in　the　former　than　in　the

latter。　They　naturally；　therefore；　commend　the　former　as　more

favourable　to　industry。　Landlords　and　farmers；　besides；　two　of

the　largest　classes　of　masters；　have　another　reason　for　being

pleased　with　dear　years。　The　rents　of　the　one　and　the　profits　of

the　other　depend　very　much　upon　the　price　of　provisions。　Nothing

can　be　more　absurd；　however；　than　to　imagine　that　men　in　general

should　work　less　when　they　work　for　themselves；　than　when　they

work　for　other　people。　A　poor　independent　workman　will　generally

be　more　industrious　than　even　a　journeyman　who　works　by　the

piece。　The　one　enjoys　the　whole　produce　of　his　own　industry；　the

other　shares　it　with　his　master。　The　one；　in　his　separate

independent　state；　is　less　liable　to　the　temptations　of　bad

company；　which　in　large　manufactories　so　frequently　ruin　the

morals　of　the　other。　The　superiority　of　the　independent　workman

over　those　servants　who　are　hired　by　the　month　or　by　the　year；

and　whose　wages　and　maintenance　are　the　same　whether　they　do　much

or　do　little；　is　likely　to　be　still　greater。　Cheap　years　tend　to

increase　the　proportion　of　independent　workmen　to　journeymen　and

servants　of　all　kinds；　and　dear　years　to　diminish　it。

　　　　　A　French　author　of　great　knowledge　and　ingenuity；　Mr。

Messance；　receiver　of　the　taillies　in　the　election　of　St。

Etienne；　endeavours　to　show　that　the　poor　do　more　work　in　cheap

than　in　dear　years；　by　comparing　the　quantity　and　value　of　the

goods　made　upon　those　different　occasions　in　three　different

manufactures；　one　of　coarse　woollens　carried　on　at　Elbeuf；　one　of

linen；　and　another　of　silk；　both　which　extend　through　the　whole

generality　of　Rouen。　It　appears　from　his　account；　which　is　copied

from　the　registers　of　the　public　offices；　that　the　quantity　and

value　of　the　goods　made　in　all　those　three　manufactures　has

generally　been　greater　in　cheap　than　in　dear　years；　and　that　it

has　always　been　greatest　in　the　cheapest；　and　least　in　the

dearest　years。　All　the　three　seem　to　be　stationary　manufactures；

or　which；　though　their　produce　may　vary　somewhat　from　year　to

year；　are　upon　the　whole　neither　going　backwards　nor　forwards。

　　　　　The　manufacture　of　linen　in　Scotland；　and　that　of　coarse

woollens　in　the　West　Riding　of　Yorkshire；　are　growing

manufactures；　of　which　the　produce　is　generally；　though　with　some

variations；　increasing　both　in　quantity　and　value。　Upon

examining；　however；　the　accounts　which　have　been　published　of

their　annual　produce；　I　have　not　been　able　to　observe　that　its

variations　have　had　any　sensible　connection　with　the　dearness　or

cheapness　of　the　seasons。　In　1740；　a　year　of　great　scarcity；　both

manufactures；　indeed；　appear　to　have　declined　very　considerably。

But　in　1756；　another　year　of　great　scarcity；　the　Scotch

manufacture　made　more　than　ordinary　advances。　The　Yorkshire

manufacture；　indeed；　declined；　and　its　produce　did　not　rise　to

what　it　had　been　in　1755　till　1766；　after　the　repeal　of　the

American　Stamp　Act。　In　that　and　the　following　year　it　greatly

exceeded　what　it　had　ever　been　before；　and　it　has　continued　to

advance　ever　since。

　　　　　The　produce　of　all　great　manufactures　for　distant　sale　must

necessarily　depend；　not　so　much　upon　the　dearness　or　cheapness　of

the　seasons　in　the　countries　where　they　are　carried　on　as　upon

the　circumstances　which　affect　the　demand　in　the　countries　where

they　are　consumed；　upon　peace　or　war；　upon　the　prosperity　or

declension　of　other　rival　manufactures；　and　upon　the　good　or　bad

humour　of　their　principal　customers。　A　great　part　of　the

extraordinary　work；　besides；　which　is　probably　done　in　cheap

years；　never　enters　the　public　registers　of　manufactures。　The　men

servants　who　leave　their　masters　become　independent　labourers。

The　women　return　to　their　parents；　and　commonly　spin　in　order　to

make　clothes　for　themselves　and　their　families。　Even　the

independent　workmen　do　not　always　work　for　public　sale；　but　are

employed　by　some　of　their　neighbours　in　manufactures　for　family

use。　The　produce　of　their　labour；　therefore；　frequently　makes　no

figure　in　those　public　registers　of　which　the　records　are

sometimes　published　with　so　much　parade；　and　from　which　our

merchants　and　manufacturers　would　often　vainly　pretend　to

announce　the　prosperity　or　declension　of　the　greatest　empires。

　　　　　Though　the　variations　in　the　price　of　labour　not　only　do　not

always　correspond　with　those　in　the　price　of　provisions；　but　are

frequently　quite　opposite；　we　must　not；　upon　this　account；

imagine　that　the　price　of　provisions　has　no　influence　upon　that

of　labour。　The　money　price　of　labour　is　necessarily　regulated　by

two　circumstances；　the　demand　for　labour；　and　the　price　of　the

necessaries　and　conveniences　of　life。　The　demand　for　labour；

according　as　it　happens　to　be　increasing；　stationary；　or

declining；　or　to　require　an　increasing；　stationary；　or　declining

population；　determines　the　quantity　of　the　necessaries　and

conveniencies　of　life　which　must　be　given　to　the　labourer；　and

the　money　price　of　labour　is　determined　by　what　is　requisite　for

purchasing　this　quantity。　Though　the　money　price　of　labour；

therefore；　is　sometimes　high　where　the　price　of　provisions　is

low；　it　would　be　still　higher；　the　demand　continuing　the　same；　if

the　price　of　provisions　was　high。

　　　　　It　is　because　the　demand　for　labour　increases　in　years　of

sudden　and　extraordinary　plenty；　and　diminishes　in　those　of

sudden　and　extraordinary　scarcity；　that　the　money　price　of　labour

sometimes　rises　in　the　one　and　sinks　in　the　other。

　　　　　In　a　year　of　sudden　and　extraordinary　plenty；　there　are

funds　in　the　hands　of　many　of　the　employers　of　industry

sufficient　to　maintain　and　employ　a　greater　number　of　industrious

people　than　had　been　employed　the　year　before；　and　this