wealbk01-第16章

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great　in　it；　as　to　reduce　the　wages　of　labour　to　the　most

miserable　and　scanty　subsistence　of　the　labourer。　Many　would　not

be　able　to　find　employment　even　upon　these　hard　terms；　but　would

either　starve；　or　be　driven　to　seek　a　subsistence　either　by

begging；　or　by　the　perpetration　perhaps　of　the　greatest

enormities。　Want；　famine；　and　mortality　would　immediately　prevail

in　that　class；　and　from　thence　extend　themselves　to　all　the

superior　classes；　till　the　number　of　inhabitants　in　the　country

was　reduced　to　what　could　easily　be　maintained　by　the　revenue　and

stock　which　remained　in　it；　and　which　had　escaped　either　the

tyranny　or　calamity　which　had　destroyed　the　rest。　This　perhaps　is

nearly　the　present　state　of　Bengal；　and　of　some　other　of　the

English　settlements　in　the　East　Indies。　In　a　fertile　country

which　had　before　been　much　depopulated；　where　subsistence；

consequently；　should　not　be　very　difficult；　and　where；

notwithstanding；　three　or　four　hundred　thousand　people　die　of

hunger　in　one　year；　we　may　be　assured　that　the　funds　destined　for

the　maintenance　of　the　labouring　poor　are　fast　decaying。　The

difference　between　the　genius　of　the　British　constitution　which

protects　and　governs　North　America；　and　that　of　the　mercantile

company　which　oppresses　and　domineers　in　the　East　Indies；　cannot

perhaps　be　better　illustrated　than　by　the　different　state　of

those　countries。

　　　　　The　liberal　reward　of　labour；　therefore；　as　it　is　the

necessary　effect；　so　it　is　the　natural　symptom　of　increasing

national　wealth。　The　scanty　maintenance　of　the　labouring　poor；　on

the　other　hand；　is　the　natural　symptom　that　things　are　at　a

stand；　and　their　starving　condition　that　they　are　going　fast

backwards。

　　　　　In　Great　Britain　the　wages　of　labour　seem；　in　the　present

times；　to　be　evidently　more　than　what　is　precisely　necessary　to

enable　the　labourer　to　bring　up　a　family。　In　order　to　satisfy

ourselves　upon　this　point　it　will　not　be　necessary　to　enter　into

any　tedious　or　doubtful　calculation　of　what　may　be　the　lowest　sum

upon　which　it　is　possible　to　do　this。　There　are　many　plain

symptoms　that　the　wages　of　labour　are　nowhere　in　this　country

regulated　by　this　lowest　rate　which　is　consistent　with　common

humanity。

　　　　　First；　in　almost　every　part　of　Great　Britain　there　is　a

distinction；　even　in　the　lowest　species　of　labour；　between　summer

and　winter　wages。　Summer　wages　are　always　highest。　But　on　account

of　the　extraordinary　expense　of　fuel；　the　maintenance　of　a　family

is　most　expensive　in　winter。　Wages；　therefore；　being　highest　when

this　expense　is　lowest；　it　seems　evident　that　they　are　not

regulated　by　what　is　necessary　for　this　expense；　but　by　the

quantity　and　supposed　value　of　the　work。　A　labourer；　it　may　be

said　indeed；　ought　to　save　part　of　his　summer　wages　in　order　to

defray　his　winter　expense；　and　that　through　the　whole　year　they

do　not　exceed　what　is　necessary　to　maintain　his　family　through

the　whole　year。　A　slave；　however；　or　one　absolutely　dependent　on

us　for　immediate　subsistence；　would　not　be　treated　in　this

manner。　His　daily　subsistence　would　be　proportioned　to　his　daily

necessities。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　wages　of　labour　do　not　in　Great　Britain

fluctuate　with　the　price　of　provisions。　These　vary　everywhere

from　year　to　year；　frequently　from　month　to　month。　But　in　many

places　the　money　price　of　labour　remains　uniformly　the　same

sometimes　for　half　a　century　together。　If　in　these　places；

therefore；　the　labouring　poor　can　maintain　their　families　in　dear

years；　they　must　be　at　their　ease　in　times　of　moderate　plenty；

and　in　affluence　in　those　of　extraordinary　cheapness。　The　high

price　of　provisions　during　these　ten　years　past　has　not　in　many

parts　of　the　kingdom　been　accompanied　with　any　sensible　rise　in

the　money　price　of　labour。　It　has；　indeed；　in　some；　owing

probably　more　to　the　increase　of　the　demand　for　labour　than　to

that　of　the　price　of　provisions。

　　　　　Thirdly；　as　the　price　of　provisions　varies　more　from　year　to

year　than　the　wages　of　labour；　so；　on　the　other　hand；　the　wages

of　labour　vary　more　from　place　to　place　than　the　price　of

provisions。　The　prices　of　bread　and　butcher's　meat　are　generally

the　same　or　very　nearly　the　same　through　the　greater　part　of　the

United　Kingdom。　These　and　most　other　things　which　are　sold　by

retail；　the　way　in　which　the　labouring　poor　buy　all　things；　are

generally　fully　as　cheap　or　cheaper　in　great　towns　than　in　the

remoter　parts　of　the　country；　for　reasons　which　I　shall　have

occasion　to　explain　hereafter。　But　the　wages　of　labour　in　a　great

town　and　its　neighbourhood　are　frequently　a　fourth　or　a　fifth

part；　twenty　or　five…and…twenty　per　cent　higher　than　at　a　few

miles　distance。　Eighteenpence　a　day　may　be　reckoned　the　common

price　of　labour　in　London　and　its　neighbourhood。　At　a　few　miles

distance　it　falls　to　fourteen　and　fifteenpence。　Tenpence　may　be

reckoned　its　price　in　Edinburgh　and　its　neighbourhood。　At　a　few

miles　distance　it　falls　to　eightpence；　the　usual　price　of　common

labour　through　the　greater　part　of　the　low　country　of　Scotland；

where　it　varies　a　good　deal　less　than　in　England。　Such　a

difference　of　prices；　which　it　seems　is　not　always　sufficient　to

transport　a　man　from　one　parish　to　another；　would　necessarily

occasion　so　great　a　transportation　of　the　most　bulky　commodities；

not　only　from　one　parish　to　another；　but　from　one　end　of　the

kingdom；　almost　from　one　end　of　the　world　to　the　other；　as　would

soon　reduce　them　more　nearly　to　a　level。　After　all　that　has　been

said　of　the　levity　and　inconstancy　of　human　nature；　it　appears

evidently　from　experience　that　a　man　is　of　all　sorts　of　luggage

the　most　difficult　to　be　transported。　If　the　labouring　poor；

therefore；　can　maintain　their　families　in　those　parts　of　the

kingdom　where　the　price　of　labour　is　lowest；　they　must　be　in

affluence　where　it　is　highest。

　　　　　Fourthly；　the　variations　in　the　price　of　labour　not　only　do

not　correspond　either　in　place　or　time　with　those　in　the　price　of

provisions；　but　they　are　frequently　quite　opposite。

　　　　　Grain；　the　food　of　the　common　people；　is　dearer　in　Scotland

than　in　England；　whence　Scotland　receives　almost　every　year　very

large　supplies。　But　English　corn　must　be　sold　dearer　in　Scotland；

the　country　to　which　it　is　brought；　than　in　England；　the　country

from　which　it　comes；　and　in　proportion　to　its　quality　it　cannot

be　sold　dearer　in　Scotland　than　the　Scotch　corn　that　comes　to　the

same　market　in　competition　with　it。　The　quality　of　grain　depends

chiefly　upon　the　quantity　of　flour　or　meal　which　it　yields　at　the

mill；　and　in　this　respect　English　grain　is　so　much　superior　to

the　Scotch　that；　though　often　dearer　in　appearance；　or　in

proportion　to　the　measure　of　its　bulk；　it　is　generally　cheaper　in

reality；　or　in　proportion　to　its　quality；　or　even　to　the　measure

of　its　weight。　The　price　of　labour；　on　the　contrary；　is　dearer　in

England　than　in　Scotland。　If　the　labouring　poor；　therefore；　can

maintain　their　families　in　the　one　part　of　the　United　Kingdom；

they　must　be　in　affluence　in　the　other。　Oatmeal　indeed　supplies

the　common　people　in　Scotland　with　the　greatest　and　the　best　part

of　their　food；　which　is　in　general　much　inferior　to　that　of　their

neighbours　of　the　same　rank　in　England。　This　difference；　however；

in　the　mode　of　their　subsistence　is　not　the　cause；　but　the　effect

of　the　difference　in　their　wages；　though；　by　a　strange

misapprehension；　I　have　frequently　heard　it　represented　as　the

cause。　It　is　not　because　one　man　keeps　a　coach　while　his

neighbour　walks　afoot　that　the　one　is　rich　and　the　other　poor；

but　because　the　one　is　rich　he　keeps　a　coach；　and　because　the

other　is　poor　he　walks　afoot。

　　　　　During　the　course　of　the　last　century；　taking　one　year　with

another；　grain　was　dearer　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom

than　during　that　of　the　present。　This　is　a　matter　of　fact　which

cannot　now　admit　of　any　reasonable　doubt；　and　the　proof　of　it　is；

if　possible；　still　more　decisive　with　regard　to　Scotland　than

with　regard　to　England。　It　is　in　Scotland　supported　by　the

evidence　of　the　public　fiars；　annual　valuations　made　upon　oath；

according　to　the　actual　state　of　the　markets；　of　all　the

different　sorts　of　grain　in　every　different　county　of　Scotland。

If　such　direct　proof　could　require　any　collateral　evidence　to

confirm　it；　I　would　observe　that　this　has　likewise　been　the　case

in　France；　and　probably　in　most　other　parts　of　Europe。　With

regard　to　France　there　is　the　clearest　proof。　But　though　it　is

certain　that　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom　grain　was

somewhat　dearer　in　the　last　century　than　in　the　present；　it　is

equally　certain　that　labour　was　much　cheaper。　If　the　labouring

poor；　therefore；　could　bring　up　their　families　then；　they　must　be

much　more　at　their　ease　now。　In　the　last　century；　the　most　usual

day…wages　of　common　labour　through　the　greater　part　of　Scotland

were　sixpence　in　summer　and　fivepence　in　winter。　Three　shillings

a　week；　the　same　price　very　nearly；　still　continues　to　be　paid　in

some　parts　of　the　Highlands　and　Western　Islands。　Through　the

greater　part　of　the　low　country　the　most　usual　wages　of　common

labour　are　now　eightpence　a　day；　tenpence；　sometimes　a　shilling

about　Edinburgh；　in　the　counties　which　border　upon　England；

probably　on　account　of　that　neighbourhood；　and　in　a　few　other

places　where　there　has　lately　been　a　considerable　rise　in　the

demand　for　labour；　about　Glasgow；　Carron；　Ayrshire；　etc。　In

England　the　improvements　of　agriculture；　manufactures；　and

commerce　began　much　earlier　than　in　Scotland。　The　demand　for

labour；　and　consequently　its　price；　must　necessarily　have

increased　with　those　improvements。　In　the　last　century；

accordingly；　as　well　as　in　the　present；　the　wages　of　labour　were

higher　in　England　than　in　Scotland。　They　have　risen；　too；

considerably　since　that　time；　though；　on　account　of　the　greater

variety　of　wages　paid　there　in　different　places；　it　is　more

difficult　to　ascertain　how　much。　In　1614；　the　pay　of　a　foot

soldier　was　the　same　as　in　the　present　times；　eightpence　a　day。

When　it　was　first　established　it　would　naturally　be　regulated　by

the　usual　wages　of　common　labourers；　the　rank　of　people　from

which　foot　soldiers　are　commonly　drawn。　Lord　Chief　Justice　Hales；

who　wrote　in　the　time　of　Charles　II；　computes　the　necessary

expense　of　a　labourer's　family；　consisting　of　six　persons；　the

father　and　mother；　two　children　able　to　do　something；　and　two　not

able；　at　ten　shillings　a　week；　or　twenty…six　pounds　a　year。　If

they　cannot　earn　this　by　their　labour；　they　must　make　it　up；　he

supposes；　either　by　begging　or　stealing。　He　appears　to　have

inquired　very　carefully　into　this　subject。　In　1688；　Mr。　Gregory

King；　whose　skill　in　political　arithmetic　is　so　much　extolled　by

Doctor　Davenant；　computed　the　ordinary　income　of　labourers　and

out…servants　to　be　fifteen　pounds　a　year　to　a　family；　which　he

supposed　to　consist；　one