the foundations of personality-第34章

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le；　affective　states。　The　difficulty　of　understanding　the　essential　nature　of　pleasure　and　pain；　the　fact　that　what　is　pleasure　to　one　man　is　pain　to　another；　rather　discredited　this　as　a　psychological　explanation。　I　think　we　may　phrase　the　situation　fairly　on　an　empirical　basis　when　we　say　that　seeking　arises　in　instinct　but　receives　its　impulse　to　continuity　by　some　agreeable　affective　state　of　satisfaction。　Man　steers　towards　pleasure　and　satisfaction　of　some　type　or　other；　but　the　force　is　the　unbalance　of　an　instinct。　When　we　speak　of　man　as　a　seeker；　we　are　not　separating　him　from　the　rest　of　living　things。　All　life　seeks；　and　the　more　mobile　a　living　thing　is　the　more　it　seeks。　A　sessile　mussel　chained　to　a　rock　seeks　little　but　the　fundamentals　of　nutrition　and　generation　and　these　in　a　simple　way。　An　animal　that　builds　habitations　for　its　young；　courts　its　mate；　plays；　teaches　and　fights；　may　do　nothing　more　than　seek　nutrition　and　generation；　but　it　seeks　these　through　many　intermediary　〃end〃　points；　through　many　impulses；　and　thus　it　has　many　types　of　satisfaction。　When　a　creature　develops　to　the　point　that　it　establishes　all　kinds　of　rules　governing　conduct；　when　it　establishes　sanctions　that　are　eternal　and　has　purposes　that　have　a　terminus　in　a　hereafter　which　is　out　of　the　span　of　life　of　the　planner；　it　becomes　quite　difficult　to　say　just　what　it　is　man　seeks。　In　fact；　every　man　seeks　many　things；　many　satisfactions；　and　whatever　it　may　be　that　Man　in　the　abstract　seeks；　individual　men　differ　very　decidedly　not　only　as　to　what　they　seek　but　as　to　what　should　be　sought。　Our　viscera；　our　tissues；　as　they　function；　change　by　the　using　up　of　energy　and　the　breaking　down　of　materials。　That　change　brings　about　sensory　disturbances　in　our　body　which　are　not　unpleasant　in　moderation；　which　we　call　hunger；　thirst　and　fatigue。　To　relieve　these　three　primitive　states　we　seek　food；　drink　and　rest；　we　DESIRE　food；　drink　and　rest。　Desire　then　is　primitive；　organic；　arising　mainly　in　the　vegetative　nervous　system；　and　it　awakens　mechanisms　that　bring　us　food；　drink　and　rest。　A　feeling　which　we　call　satisfaction　results　when　the　changes　in　the　viscera　and　tissues　are　readjusted　or　on　the　way　to　readjustment。　Here　is　the　simplest　paradigm　for　desire　seeking　satisfaction；　but　it　is　on　a　plane　rarely　found　in　man；　because　his　life　is　too　complicated　for　such　formulae　to　work。　Food　must　be　bought　or　produced；　and　this　involves　cooperation；　competition；　self…denial；　thrift；　science；　finance；　invention。　It　involves　ethics；　because　though　you　are　hungry　you　must　not　steal　food　or　give　improper　value　for　it。　Moreover；　though　you　are　hungry；　you　have　developed　tastes；　manners；　etc。；　and　you　cannot；　must　not　eat　this　or　that　（through　religion）；　you　mast　eat　with　certain　implements）；　and　would　rather　die　than　violate　the　established　standards　in　such　matters。＇1＇　Thus　to　the　simple　act　of　eating；　to　the　satisfaction　of　a　primitive　desire　set　up　by　a　primitive　need；　there　are　any　number　of　obstacles　set　up　by　the　complexities　of　our　social　existence。　The　sanction　of　these　obstacles；　their　power　to　influence　us；　rests　in　other　desires　and　purposes　arising　out　of　other　〃needs〃　of　our　nature。　What　are　those　needs？　They　are　inherent　in　what　has　been　called　the　social　instincts；　in　that　side　of　our　nature　which　makes　us　yearn　for　approval　and　swings　us　into　conformity　with　a　group。　The　group　organizes　the　activities　of　its　individuals　just　as　an　individual　organizes　his　activities。　The　evolutionists　explain　this　group　feeling　as　part　of　the　equipment　necessary　for　survival。　Perhaps　this　is　an　adequate　account　of　the　situation；　but　the　strength　of　the　social　instincts　almost　lead　one　to　a　more　mystical　explanation；　a　sort　of　acceptance　of　the　group　as　the　unit　and　the　individual　as　an　incomplete　fragment。　＇1＇　The　Sepoy　Rebellion　had　its　roots　in　a　food　taboo；　and　Mussulman；　Hebrew　and　Roman　Catholic　place　a　religious　value　on　diet。　Most　of　the　complexities　of　existence　are　of　our　own　creation。

What　is　true　of　hunger　is　true　of　thirst　and　fatigue。　Desires　in　these　directions　have　to　accommodate　themselves；　in　greater　or　lesser　degrees；　to　the　complexities　in　which　our　social　nature　and　customs　have　involved　us。　It　is　true　that　desires　upon　which　the　actual　survival　of　the　individual　depend　will　finally　break　through　taboo　and　restriction　if　completely　balked。　That　is；　very　few　people　will　actually　starve　to　death；　die　of　thirst　or　keep　awake　indefinitely；　despite　any　convention　or　taboo。　Nevertheless　there　are　people　who　will　resist　these　fundamental　desires；　as　in　the　case　of　MacSwiney；　the　Irish　republican；　and　as　in　the　case　of　martyrs　recorded　in　the　history　of　all　peoples。　It　may　be　that　in　some　of　these　we　are　dealing　with　a　powerful　inhibition　of　appetite　of　the　kind　seen　in　anhedonia。　The　elaboration　of　the　sex　impulses　and　desires　into　the　purposes　of　marriage；　the　repression　into　lifelong　continence　and　chastity；　forms　one　of　the　most　marvelous　of　chapters　in　the　psychological　history　of　man。　The　desire　for　sex　relationship　of　the　crude　kind　is　very　variable　both　in　force；　time　of　appearance　and　reaction　to　discipline　and　unquestionably　arises　from　the　changes　in　the　sex　organs。　Both　to　enhance　and　repress　it　are　aims　of　the　culture　and　custom　of　each　group；　and　the　lower　groups　have　given　actual　sexual　intercourse　a　mystical　supernatural　value　that　has　at　times　and　in　various　places　raised　it　into　the　basis　of　cults　and　religions。　Repressed；　hampered；　canalized；　forbidden；　the　sex　impulses　have　profoundly　modified　clothes；　art；　religion；　morals　and　philosophy。　The　sex　customs　of　any　nation　demonstrate　the　extreme　plasticity　of　human　desires　and　the　various　twists；　turns　and　customs　that　tradition　declares　holy。　There　have　been　whole　groups　of　people　that　have　deemed　any　sexual　pleasure　unholy；　and　the　great　religions　still　deem　it　necessary　for　their　leaders　to　be　continent。　And　the　absurdities　of　modesty；　a　modified　sex　impulse；　have　made　it　immoral　for　a　woman　to　show　her　leg　above　the　calf　while　in　her　street　clothes；＇1＇　though　she　may　wear　a　bathing　suit　without　reproach。　＇1＇　This　is；　of　course；　not　quite　so　true　in　1921　as　in　1910。

Whatever　a　desire　is　basically；　it　tends　quickly　to　organize　itself　in　character。　It　gathers　to　itself　emotions；　sentiments；　intelligence；　it　plans　and　it　wills；　it　battles　against　other　desires。　I　say　IT；　as　if　the　desire　were　an　entity；　a　personality；　but　what　I　mean　is　that　the　somatic　and　cerebral　activities　of　a　desire　become　so　organized　as　to　operate　as　a　unit。　A　permanent　excitability　of　these　nervous　centers　as　a　unit　is　engendered；　and　these　are　easily　aroused　either　by　a　stimulus　from　the　body　or　from　without。　Thus　the　sex　impulse　arises　directly　from　tensions　within　the　sex　organs　but　is　built　up　and　elaborated　by　approval　of　and　admiration　for　beauty；　strength　and　intelligence；　by　the　desire　for　possession　and　mastery；　by　competitive　feeling；　until　it　may　become　drawn　out　into　the　elaborate　purpose　of　marriage　or　the　family。　What　is　the　ego　that　desires　and　plans？　I　do　not　know；　but　if　it　is　in　any　part　a　metaphysical　entity　of　permanent　nature　in　so　far　it　does　not　become　the　subject　matter　of　this　book。　For　as　a　metaphysical　entity　it　is　uncontrollable；　and　the　object　of　science　is　to　discover　and　utilize　the　controllable　elements　of　the　world。　I　may　point　out　that　even　those　philosophers　and　theologians　to　whom　the　ego　is　an　entity　of　supernatural　origin　deny　their　own　standpoint　every　time　they　seek　to　convince；　persuade　or　force　the　ego　of　some　one　to　a　new　belief　or　new　line　of　action；　deny　it　every　time　they　say；　〃I　am　tired　and　I　shall　rest；　then　I　shall　think　better　and　can　plan　better。〃　Such　a　philosopher　says　in　essence；　〃I　have　an　entity　within　me　totally　and　incommensurably　different　from　my　body；〃　and　then　he　goes　on　to　prove　that　this　entity　operates　better　when　the　body　is　rested　and　fed　than　otherwise！　For　us　the　ego　is　a　built…up　structure　and　has　its　evolution　from　the　diffuse　state　of　early　infancy　to　the　intense；　well…defined　state　of　maturity；　it　is　elaborated　by　a　process　that　is　in　part　due　to　the　environment；　in　part　to　the　inherent　structure　of　man。　We　may　postulate　a　continuous　excitement　of　nerve　centers　as　its　basis；　and　this　excitement　cognizes　other　excitement　in　some　mysterious　manner；　but　no　more　mysterious　than　life；　instinct　or　intelligence　are。　These　excitements　struggle　for　the　possession　of　an　outlet　in　action；　and　this　is　what　we　call　competing　desires；　struggle　against　temptation；　etc。　Sometimes　one　desire　is　identified　with　the　ego　as　part　of　itself；　sometimes　the　desire　is　contrasted　with　the　ego　and　we　say；　〃I　struggled　with　the　desire　but　it　overcame　me。〃　Common　language　plainly　shows　the　plurality　of　the　personality；　even　though　the　man　on　the　street　thinks　of　himself　as　a　united　〃I；〃　even　an　invisible　〃I。〃　One　of　the　fundamental　desires；　nay　the　fundamental　desire；　is　the　expansion　of　the　self；　i。　e。；　increased　self…esteem。　When　the　infant　sprawls　in　his　basket　after　his　arrival　in　this　world；　it　is　doubtful　if　he　has　a　〃me〃　which　he　separates　from　the　〃non…me。〃　Yet　that　same　infant；　a　few　years　later；　and　through　the　rest　of　his　life；　believes　that　in　his　personality　resides　something　immortal；　and　has　as　his　prime　pleasure　the　feeling　of　worth　and　growth　of　that　personality；　and　as　his　worst　hurt　the　feeling　of　decay　and　inferiority　of　that　personality。　Let　us　watch　that　infant　as　it　sprawls　in　its　little　bed；　the　darling　of　a　pair　of　worshiping　parents。　In　that　relationship　the　child　is　no　solitary　individual；　society　is　there　already；　watching　him；　nourishing　and　teaching　him。　Already　he　is　in　the；　hands　of　his　group　who；　though　seeking　his　happiness；　are　nevertheless　determined　that　he　shall　obtain　it　their　way。　And　from　then　to　the　end　of　his　life　that　group　will　in　large　measure　offer　him　the　criteria　of　values；　and　his　self…esteem　will；　in　the　majority　of　cases；　rest　upon　his　idea　of　their　esteem　of　him。　In　the　brooding　mother；　in　the　tender　father　lie　dormant　all　the　judgments　of　the　time　on　the　conduct　and　guiding　motives　of　the　little　one。　The　baby　throws　his　arms　about；　kicks　his　legs；　rolls　his　eyes。　In　these　movements　arising　from　internal　activities　which；　we　can　only　state；　relate　to　vascular　distribution；　neuronic　relations；　visceral　and　endocrinic　activities；　is　the　germ　of　the　impulse　to　activity　which　it　is　the　function　of　society　and　the　individual　himself　to　shape　into　organized　useful　work。　Thus　is　manifested　a　native；　inherent；　potentiality；　which　we　may　call　the　energy　of　the　baby；　the　energy　of　man；　a　something　which　the　environment　shapes；　but　which　is　created　in　the　laboratory　of　the　individual。　The　father　and　mother　are　delighted　with　the　fine　vigorous　movements　of　the　child；　and　there　is　in　that　delight　the　approval　that　society　always　gives　or　tends　to　give　to　manifestations　of　power。　We　tend　involuntarily　to　admire　strength；　even　though　misdirected。　The　strong　man　always　has　followers　though　he　be　a　villain；　and　in　fact　the　history　of　man　is　to　a　large　extent　based　on　the　fact　that　the　strong　man　evokes　enthusiasm　and　obedience。　This　impulse　to　activity　is　an　unrest；　and　its　satisfaction　lies　in　movement；　in　other　words　there　i