the foundations of personality-第17章

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ble　teaching　of　what　is　remarkably　skillful　and　marvelously　adapted　conduct。＇1＇　＇1＇　The　nature　of　instinct　has　been　a　subject　of　discussion　for　centuries；　but　it　is　only　within　the　last　fifty　years　or　thereabouts　that　instinctive　actions　have　really　been　studied。　I　refer　the　reader　to　the　works　of　Darwin；　Romanes；　Lloyd　Morgan；　the　Peckhams；　Fabre；　Hobhouse；　and　McDougall　for　details　as　to　the　controversies　and　the　facts　obtained。

Herbert　Spencer　considered　the　instinct　as　a　series　of　inevitable　reflexes。　The　carrion　fly；　when　gravid；　deposits　her　eggs　in　putrid　meat　in　order　that　the　larvae　may　have　appropriate　food；　although　she　never　sees　the　larvae　or　cannot　know　through　experience　their　needs。　〃The　smell　of　putrid　meat　attracts　the　gravid　carrion　fly。　That　is；　it　sets　up　motions　of　the　wings　which　bring　the　fly　to　it；　and　the　fly　having　arrived；　the　smell；　and　the　contact　combined　stimulate　the　functions　of　oviposition。〃＇1＇　But　as　all　the　critics　have　pointed　out；　the　theory　of　compound　reflex　action　leaves　out　of　account　that　there　are　any　number　of　stimuli　pouring　in　on　the　carrion　fly　at　the　same　time　that　the　meat　attracts　her。　The　real　mystery　lies　in　that　internal　condition　which　makes　the　smell　of　the　meat　act　so　inevitably。　＇1＇　Hobhouse。

In　fact；　it　is　this　internal　condition　in　the　living　creature　that　is　the　most　important　single　link　in　instinct。　In　the　non…mating　season　the　sight　of　the　female　has　no　effect　on　the　male。　But　periodically　his　internal　organs　become　tense　with　procreative　cells；　these　change　his　coenaesthesia；　that　starts　desire；　and　desire　sets　going　the　mechanisms　of　search；　courtship；　the　sexual　act　and　the　care　of　the　female　while　she　is　gravid。　All　instinctive　acts　have　back　of　them　either　a　tension　or　a　deficit　of　some　kind　or　other；　brought　about　by　the　awakening　of　function　of　some　glandular　structure；　so　that　the　organism　becomes　ready　to　respond　to　some　appropriate　outside　stimulus　and　inaccessible　to　others。　During　the　mating　season；　with　certain　animals；　the　stimulus　of　food　has　no　effect　until　there　is　effected　the　purposes　of　the　sexual　hunger。　Changes　in　the　body　due　to　the　activity　of　sex　glands　or　gastric　juices　or　any　other　organic　product　have　two　effects。　They　increase　the　stimulation　that　comes　from　the　thing　sought　and　decrease　the　stimulation　that　comes　from　other　things。　In　physiological　language；　the　threshold　for　the　first　is　lowered　and　for　the　other　it　is　raised。　But　this　does　not　explain　HOW　the　changes　in　glands　MAKE　the　animal　seek　this　or　that；　except　by　saying　that　the　animal　has　hereditary　structures　all　primed　to　explode　in　the　right　way。　We　may　fall　back　on　Bergson's　mystical　idea　that　all　life　is　a　unity；　and　that　instinct；　which　makes　one　living　thing　know　what　to　do　with　anotherto　kill　it　in　a　scientific　way　for　the　good　of　the　posterity　of　the　killeris　merely　the　knowledge；　unconscious；　that　life　has　of　life。　That　pleasant　explanation　projects　us　back　to　a　darker　problem　than　ever：　how　life　knows　life　and　why　one　part　of　life　so　obviously　seeks　to　circumvent　the　purpose　of　another　part　of　life。　For　us　it　is　best　to　say　that　instinct　arises　out　of　the　racial　and　individual　needs；　that　physically　there　occur　changes　in　the　glands　and　tissues；　that　these　set　up　desires　which　arouse　into　action　simple　or　elaborate　mechanisms　which　finally　satisfy　the　need　of　the　organs　and　tissues。＇1＇　＇1＇　Kempf　in　his　book　on　the　vegetative　nervous　system　goes　into　great　detail　the　way　the　visceral　needs　force　the　animal　or　human　to　satisfy　them。　Life　is　a　sort　of　war　between　the　vegetative　and　the　central　nervous　system。　There　is　just　enough　truth　in　this　point　of　view　to　make　it　very　entertaining。

Even　in　the　low　forms　of　life　instincts　are　not　perfect　at　the　start；　or　perfect　in　details；　and　almost　every　member　of　a　species　will　show　individuality　in　dealing　with　an　obstacle　to　an　instinctive　action。　In　other　words；　though　there　is　instinct　and　this　furnishes　the　basis　for　action　in　the　lowest　forms　of　life；　there　is　also　the　capacity　for　learning　by　experience；and　this　is　Intelligence。　〃The　basis　of　instinct　is　heredity　and　we　can　impute　an　action　to　pure　instinct　only　if　it　is　hereditary。　The　other　class　of　actions　are　those　devised　by　the　individual　animal　for　himself　on　the　basis　of　his　own　experience　and　these　are　called　generally　intelligent。　Of　intelligence　operating　within　the　sphere　of　instinct　there　is　ample　evidence。　There　are　modifications　of　instinctive　action　directly　traceable　to　experience　which　cannot　be　explained　by　the　interaction　of　purely　hereditary　tendencies　and　there　are　cases　in　which　the　whole　structure　of　the　instinct　is　profoundly　modified　by　the　experience　of　the　individual。〃　Hobhouse；　whom　I　quote；　goes　on　to　give　many　examples　of　instinctive　action　modified　by　experience　and　intelligence　in　the　insect　and　lower　animal　world。　What　I　wish　especially　to　point　out　is　that　man　has　many　instinctive　bases　for　conduct；　but　instincts　as　such　are　not　often　seen　in　pure　form　in　man。　They　are　constantly　modified　by　other　instincts　and　through　them　runs　the　influence　of　intelligence。　The　function　of　intelligence　is　to　control　instincts；　to　choose　ways　and　means　for　the　fulfillment　of　instincts　that　are　blocked；　etc。　Moreover；　the　effects　of　teachings；　ethics；　social　organization　and　tradition；　operating　through　the　social　instincts；　are　to　repress；　inhibit　and　whip　into　conformity　every　mode　of　instinctive　conduct。　The　main　instincts　are　those　relating　to　nutrition　and　reproduction；　the　care　of　the　young；　to　averting　danger　or　destroying　it；　to　play　and　organized　activity；　to　acquiring；　perhaps　to　teaching　and　learning　and　to　the　social　relations　generally。　But　manners　creep　in　to　regulate　our　methods　of　eating　and　the　things　we　shall　eat；　and　we　may　not　eat　at　all　unless　we　agree　to　get　the　things　to　eat　a　certain　way。　We　may　not　cohabit　except　under　tremendous　restriction；　and　marriage　with　its　aims　and　purposes　is　sexual　in　origin　but　modified　largely　and　almost　beyond　recognition　by　social　consideration；　taste；　esthetic　matters；　taboos　and　economic　conditions。　We　may　not　treat　our　enemy　as　instinct　bids　us　do；for　only　in　war　may　one　kill　and　here　one　kills　without　any　personal　purpose　or　anger；　almost　without　instinct。　We　may　be　compelled　through　social　exigencies　to　treat　our　enemy　politely；　eat　with　him；　sleep　with　him　and　help　him　out　of　difficulties　and　thus　completely　thwart　one　instinctive　set　of　reactions。　Play　becomes　regulated　by　rules　and　customs；　becomes　motivated　by　the　desire　for　superiority；　or　the　desire　for　gain；　and　may　even　leave　the　physical　field　entirely　and　become　purely　mental。　And　so　on。　It　does　no　special　practical　good　to　discuss　instincts　as　if　they　operated　in　man　as　such。　They　become　purposes。　Therefore　we　shall　defer　the　consideration　of　instincts　and　purposes　in　detail　until　later　chapters　of　this　book。　Since　instincts　are　too　rigid　to　meet　the　needs　of　the　social　and　traditional　life　of　man；　they　become　intellectualized　and　socialized　into　purposes　and　ambitions；　sometimes　almost　beyond　recognition。　Nevertheless；　the　driving　force　of　instinct　is　behind　every　purpose；　every　ambition；　even　though　the　individual　himself　has　not　the　slightest　idea　of　the　force　that　is　at　work。　This　does　not　mean　that　instinct　acts　as　a　sort　of　cellar…　plotter；　roving　around　in　a　subconsciousness；　or　at　least　no　such　semi…diabolical　personality　need　be　postulated；　any　more　than　it　need　be　postulated　for　the　automatic　mechanism　that　regulates　heartbeat　or　digestion。　The　organic　tensions　and　depressions　that　constitute　instinct　are　not　conscious　or　subconscious；　they　affect　our　conscious　personalities　so　that　we　desire　something；　we　fit　that　desire　in　with　the　rest　of　our　desires；　we　seek　the　means　of　gratifying　that　desire　first　in　accordance　with　means　that　Nature　has　given　us　and　second　in　accordance　with　social　teaching　and　our　intelligence。　If　the　desire　brings　us　sharply　in　contact　with　obstacles　imposed　either　by　circumstances　or　more　precious　desire；　we　inhibit　that　desire；and　thus　the　instinct。　Because　organic　tensions　and　depressions　are　periodic　and　are　dependent　upon　the　activities　of　glands　and　tissues　not　within　our　control；　the　desires　may　never　be　completely　squelched　and　may　arise　as　often　as　some　outer　stimulus　brings　them　into　activity；　to　plague　and　disorder　the　life　of　the　conscious　personality。　3。　With　this　preliminary　consideration　of　instinct；　we　pass　on　to　certain　of　the　phases　of　intelligence。　How　to　define　intelligence　is　a　difficulty　best　met　by　ignoring　definition。　But　this　much　is　true：　that　the　prime　function　of　intelligence　is　to　store　up　the　past　and　present　experiences　so　that　they　can　be　used　in　the　future；　and　that　it　adds　to　the　rigid　mechanism　of　instinct　a　plastic　force　which　by　inhibiting　and　exciting　activity　according　to　need　steers　the　organism　through　intricate　channels。　Instinct；　guided　by　a　plan；　conveniently　called　Nature's　plan；　is　not　itself　a　planner。　The　discharge　of　one　mechanism　discharges　another　and　so　on　through　a　series　until　an　end　is　reached；an　end　apparently　not　foreseen　by　the　organism　but　acting　for　the　good　of　the　race　to　which　the　organism　belongs。　Intelligence；　often　enough　not　conscious　of　the　plans　of　Nature；＇1＇　indeed；　decidedly　ignorant　of　these　plans；　works　for　some　good　established　by　itself　out　of　stimuli　set　up　by　the　instincts。　It　plans；　looks　backward　and　forward；　reaches　the　height　of　reflecting　on　itself；　gets　to　recognize　the　existence　of　instinct　and　sets　itself　the　task　of　controlling　instinct。　Often　enough　it　fails；　instinct　breaks　through；　takes　possession　of　the　means　of　achievement；　accomplishes　its　purposebut　the　failure　of　intelligence　to　control　and　the　misguided　control　it　attempts　and　assumes　are　merely　part　of　the　general　imperfections　of　the　organism。　A　perfect　intelligence　would　be　clearly　able　to　understand　its　instincts；　to　give　each　of　them　satisfaction　by　a　perfect　compromise；　would　pick　the　methods　for　accomplishment　without　error；　and　storing　up　the　past　experiences　without　loss；　would　meet　the　future　according　to　a　plan。

＇1＇　We　are　at　this　stage　in　a　very　dark　place　in　human　thought。　We　say　that　instincts　seek　the　good　of　the　race；　or　have　some　racial　purpose；　as　the　sexual　instinct　has　procreation　as　its　end。　But　the　lover　wooing　his　sweetheart　has　no　procreation　plan　in　his　mind；　he　is　urged　on　by　a　desire　to　win　this　particular　girl；　a　desire　which　is　in　part　sexual；　in　part　admiration　of　her　beauty；　grace；　and　charm；　again　it　is　the　pride　of　possession　and　achievement；　and　further　is　the　result　of　the　social　and　romantic　ideals　taught　in　books；　theaters；　etc。　He　may　not　have　the　slightest　desire　for　a　child；　as　individual　he　plans　one　thing；but　we　who　watch　him　see　in　his　approach　the　racial　urge　for　procreation　and　even　disregard　his　purposes　as　unimportant。　Who　and　what　is　the　Race；　where　does　it　reside；　how　can　it　have　purposes？　Call　it　Nature；　and　we　are　no　better　off。　We　must　fall　back　on　an　ancient　personalization　of　forces；　and　our　minds　rest　easier　when　we　think　of　a　Planner　operating　in　all　of　us　and　perhaps　smiling　as　He　witnesses　our　strivings。

As　we　study　the　nervous　systems　of　animals；　we　find　that　with　the　apparent　growth　of　intelligen