the origins of contemporary france-5-第52章

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principle　of　apportionment。　…　He　exacts　proportion　in　what　he　grants。



The　other　group　of　needs；　dating　from　long　before　1789；　involve　wants

which　have　survived　the　Revolution；　because　the　Revolution　has　not

satisfied　these。　The　first；　the　most　tenacious；　the　most　profound；　the

most　inveterate；　the　most　frustrated　of　all　is　the　desire　for

distributive　justice。　…　In　political　society；　as　in　every　other

society；　there　are　burdens　and　benefits　to　be　allotted。　When　the

apportionment　of　these　is　unbiased；　it　takes　place　according　to　a　very

simple；　self…evident　principle：



For　each　individual　the　costs　must　be　in　proportion　to　the　benefits

and　the　benefits　to　the　costs；　so　that；　for　each　one；　the　final

expense　and　the　final　receipt　may　exactly　compensate　each　other；　the

larger　or　smaller　share　of　expense　being　always　equal　to　the　larger　or

smaller　share　of　profits。



Now；　in　France；　this　proportion　had　been　wanting　for　many　centuries；

it　had　even　given　way　to　the　inverse　proportion。　If；　towards　the

middle　of　the　eighteenth　century；　two　sum…totals　of　the　budget；

material　and　moral；　had　been　calculated；　assets　on　one　side　and

liabilities　on　the　other：



On　the　one　hand　the　sum　of　the　apportionments　exacted　by　the　State；

taxes　in　ready　money；　enforced　labor；　military　service；　civil

subordination；　every　species　of　obedience　and　subjection；　in　short；

every　sacrifice　of　leisure；　comfort　and　self…esteem。



On　the　other　hand　the　sum　of　dividends　distributed　by　the　State　of

whatever　kind　or　shape；　security　for　persons　and　property；　use　and

convenience　of　roads；　delegations　of　public　authority　land　liens　on

the　public　treasury；　dignities；　ranks；　grades；　honors；　lucrative

salaries；　sinecures；　pensions；　and　the　like；　that　is　to　say；　every

gratification　belonging　to　leisure；　comfort；　or　pride　…　one　might　have

concluded　that　the　more　a　man　contributed　to　the　receipts　the　less

would　his　dividend　be；　and　the　greater　his　dividend　the　less　would　he

furnish　to　the　general　contribution。



Consequently；　every　social　or　local　group　consisted　of　two　other

groups：　a　majority　which　suffered　for　the　benefit　of　the　minority；　and

a　minority　which　benefited　at　the　expense　of　the　majority；　to　such　an

extent　that　the　privations　of　the　greatest　number　defrayed　the　luxury

of　the　small　number。　This　was　the　case　in　all　compartments　as　on　every

story；　owing　to　the　multitude；　enormity　and　diversity　of　honorific　or

useful　privileges；　owing　to　the　legal　prerogatives　and　effective

preferences　by　which　the　court　nobles　benefited　at　the　expense　of　the

provincial　nobility；



*　the　noblesse　at　the　expense　of　plebeians；

*　the　prelates　and　beneficiaries　at　the　expense　of　poorly…paid　curés

and　vicars；

*　the　two　highest　orders　of　the　clergy　at　the　expense　of　the　third；

*　the　bourgeoisie　at　the　expense　of　the　people；

*　the　towns　at　the　expense　of　the　rural　districts；

*　this　or　that　town　or　province　at　the　expense　of　the　rest；

*　the　artisan　member　of　a　corporation　at　the　expense　of　the　free

workman；



and；　in　general；　the　strong；　more　or　less　well…to…do；　in　league　and

protected；　at　the　expense　of　the　weak；　more　or　less　needy；　isolated

and　unprotected　（indéfendus）。＇1＇



One　hundred　years　before　the　Revolution　a　few　clairvoyant；　open…

hearted　and　generous　spirits　had　already　been　aroused　by　this

scandalous　disproportion。＇2＇　Finally；　everybody　is　shocked　by　it；　for；

in　each　local　or　social　group；　nearly　everybody　is　a　sufferer；　not

alone　the　rural；　the　peasant；　the　artisan；　and　the　plebeian；　not　alone

the　citizen；　the　curé　and　the　bourgeois　notable；〃　but　again　the

gentleman；　the　grand　seignior；　the　prelate　and　the　King　himself。＇3＇

Each　is　denouncing　the　privileges　of　all　others　that　affect　his

interests；　each　striving　to　diminish　another's　share　in　the　public

cake　and　to　keep　his　own；　all　concurring　in　citing　natural　right　and

in　claiming　or　accepting　as　a　principle　liberty　and　equality；　but　all

concurring　in　misconception　and　solely　unanimous　in　destroying　and　in

allowing　destruction；＇4＇　to　such　an　extent　that；　at　last；　the　attack

being　universal　and　no　defense　anywhere；　social　order　itself　perishes；

entirely　owing　to　the　abuses　of　it。



On　the　reappearance　of　the　same　abuses；　the　lack　of　distributive

justice　in　revolutionary　France　became　still　more　apparent　than　in

monarchical　France。　Through　a　sudden　transposition；　the　preferred　of

the　former　Régime　had　become　the　disgraced；　while　the　disgraced　of　the

former　Régime　had　become　the　preferred；　unjust　favor　and　unjust

disfavor　still　subsisted；　but　with　a　change　of　object。　Before　1789；

the　nation　was　subject　to　an　oligarchy　of　nobles　and　notables；　after

1789；　it　became　subject　to　an　oligarchy　of　Jacobins　big　or　little。

Before　the　Revolution；　there　were　in　France　three　or　four　hundred

thousand　privileged　individuals；　recognizable　by　their　red　heels　or

silver　shoe…buckles。　After　the　Revolution；　there　were　three　or　four

hundred　thousand　of　the　privileged；　recognizable　by　their　red　caps　or

their　carmagnoles。＇5＇　The　most　privileged　of　all；　the　three　or　four

thousand　verified　nobles；　presented　at　court　and　of　racial　antiquity；

who；　by　virtue　of　their　parchments；　rode　in　the　royal　carriages；　were

succeeded　by　three　or　four　thousand　Jacobins　of　a　fresh　sprout；　no

less　verified　and　accepted；　who；　by　virtue　of　their　civic　patent；　sat

in　the　club　of　the　rue　Saint…Honoré　and　the　latter　coterie　was　still

more　dominant；　more　exclusive；　more　partial　than　the　former　one。

Consequently；　before　the　Revolution；　the　burden　of　taxation　was　light

for　the　rich　or　the　well…to…do；　crushing　for　the　peasants　or　the

common　people；　after　the　Revolution；　on　the　contrary；　the　peasants；

the　common　people；　paid　no　more　taxes；＇6＇　while　from　the　rich　and　the

well…to…do　the　government　took　all；　not　alone　their　income　but　their

capital。　…　On　the　other　hand；　after　having　fed　the　court　of

Versailles；　the　public　treasury　had　to　feed　the　rabble　of　Paris；　still

more　voracious；　and；　from　1793　to　1796；　the　maintenance　of　this　rabble

cost　it　twenty…five　times　as　much　as；　from　1783　to　1786；　the

maintenance　of　the　court。＇7＇　　Finally；　at　Paris　as　at　Versailles；　the

subordinates　who　lived　on　the　favored　spot；　close　to　the　central

manger；　seized　on　all　they　could　get　and　ate　much　more　than　their

allowance。　Under　the　ancient　Régime；　〃the　ladies　of　honor；　every　time

they　travel　from　one　royal　country…house　to　another；　gain　80　％。　on　the

cost　of　the　journey；〃　while　the　queen's　first　chambermaid　gains；　over

and　above　her　wages；　38；000　francs　a　year　out　of　the　sales　of　half…

burnt　candles。＇8＇　　Under　the　new　Régime；　in　the　distribution　of　food；

〃the　matadors　of　the　quarter；〃　the　patriots　of　the　revolutionary

committees；　deduct　their　portions　in　advance；　and　a　very　ample

portion；　to　the　prejudice　of　the　hungry　who　await　their　turn；　one

taking　seven　rations　and　another　twenty。＇9＇　　Thus　did　the　injustice

remain；　in　knocking　it　over；　they　had　simply　made　matters　worse；　and

had　they　wished　to　build　permanently；　now　was　the　time　to　put　an　end

to　it；　for；　in　every　social　edifice　it　introduced　an　imbalance。

Whether　the　plumb…line　deflects　right　or　left　is　of　little

consequence；　sooner　or　later　the　building　falls　in；　and　thus　had　the

French　edifice　already　fallen　twice；　the　first　time　in　1789；　through

imminent　bankruptcy　and　hatred　of　the　ancient　Régime；　and　the　second

time　in　1799；　through　an　actual　bankruptcy　and　hatred　of　the

Revolution。



An　architect　like　the　French　Consul　is　on　his　guard　against　a

financial；　social　and　moral　danger　of　this　sort。　He　is　aware　that；　in

a　well…organized　society；　there　must　be　neither　surcharge　nor

discharge；　no　favors；　no　exemptions　and　no　exclusions。　Moreover；

〃l'Etat　c'est　lui；〃＇10＇　thus　is　the　public　interest　confounded　with

his　personal　interest；　and；　in　the　management　of　this　double　interest；

his　hands　are　free。　Proprietor；　and　first　inhabitant　of　France　in　the

fashion　of　its　former　kings；　he　is　not　obliged　and　embarrassed　as　they

were　by　immemorial　precedents；　by　the　concessions　they　have　sanctioned

or　the　rights　they　have　acquired。　At　the　public　table　over　which　he

presides　and　which　is　his　table；　he　does　not；　like　Louis　XV。　or　Louis

XVI。；　encounter　messmates　already　installed　there；　the　heirs　or

purchasers　of　the　seats　they　occupy；＇11＇　extending　in　long　rows　from

one　end　of　the　room　to　the　other；　each　in　his　place　according　to　rank；

in　an　arm…chair；　or　common　chair；　or　on　a　footstool；　all　being　the

legitimate　and　recognized　owners　of　their　seats；　all　of　them　the

King's　messmates　and　all　authorized　by　law；　tradition　and　custom　to

eat　a　free　dinner　or　pay　for　it　at　less　than　cost；　to　find　fault　with

the　dishes　passed　around；　to　reach　out　for　those　not　near　by；　to　help

themselves　to　what　they　want　and　to　carry　off　the　dessert　in　their

pockets。　At　the　new　table　there　are　no　places　secured　beforehand。　It

is　Napoleon　himself　who　arranges　the　table；　and　on　sitting　down；　he　is

the　master　who　has　invited　whomsoever　he　pleases；　who　assigns　to　each

his　portion；　who　regulates　meals　as　he　thinks　best　for　his　own　and　the

common　interest；　and　who　introduces　into　the　entire　service　order；

watchfulness　and　economy。　Instead　of　a　prodigal　and　negligent　grand…

seignior；　here　at　last　is　a　modern　administrator　who　orders　supplies；

distributes　portions　and　limits　consumption；　a　contractor　who　feels

his　responsibility；　a　man　of　business　able　to　calculate。　Henceforth；

each　is　to　pay　for　his　portion；　estimated　according　to　his　ration；　and

each　is　to　enjoy　his　ration　according　to　his　quota。　…　Judge　of　this　by

one　example：　In　his　own　house；　customarily　a　center　of　abuses　and

sinecures；　there　must　be　no　more　parasites。　From　the　grooms　and

scullions　of　his　palace　up　to　its　grand　officials；　even　to　the

chamberlains　and　ladies　of　honor；　all　his　domestics；　with　or　without

titles；　work　and　perform　their　daily　tasks　in　person；　administrative

or　decorative；　day　or　night；　at　the　appointed　time；　for　exact

compensation；　without　pickings　or　stealing　and　without　waste。　His

train　and　his　parades；　as　pompous　as　under　the　old　monarchy；　admit　of

the　same　ordinary　and　extraordinary　expenses　…　stables；　chapel；　food；

hunts；　journeys；　private　theatricals；　renewals　of　plate　and　furniture；

and　the　maintenance　of　twelve　palaces　or　chateaux。　While；　under　Louis

XV。；　it　was　estimated　that　〃coffee　with　one　roll　for　each　lady　of

honor　cost　the　King　2；000　livres　a　year；〃　and　under　Louis　XVI。；〃　the

grand　broth　night　and　day〃　which　Madame　Royale；　aged　two　years；

sometimes　drank　and　which　figured　in　the　annual　accounts　at　5201

livres；＇12＇　under　Napoleon　〃in　the　pantries；　in　the　kitchens；　the

smallest　dish；　a　mere　plate　of　soup；　a　glass　of　sugared　water；　would

not　have　been　served　without　the　authorization　or　check　of　grand…

marshal　Duroc。　Every　abuse　is　watched；　the　gains　of　each　are

calculated　and　regulated　bef