evolution and ethics and other essays-第26章

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development；　are　secured；　there　remains　for　consideration　the　means　of
attaining　that　knowledge　and　skill　without　which；　even　then；　the
battle　of　competition　cannot　be　successfully　fought。　Let　us　consider
how　we　stand。　A　vast　system　of　elementary　education　has　now　been　in
operation　among　us　for　sixteen　years；　and　has　reached　all　but　a　very
small　fraction　of　the　population。　I　do　not　think　that　there　is　any
room　for　doubt　that；　on　the　whole；　it　has　worked　well；　and　that　its
indirect　no　less　than　its　direct　benefits　have　been　immense。　But；　as
might　be　expected；　it　exhibits　the　defects　of　all　our　educational
systemsfashioned　＇220＇　as　they　were　to　meet　the　wants　of　a　bygone
condition　of　society。　There　is　a　widespread　and；　I　think；
well…justified　complaint　that　it　has　too　much　to　do　with　books　and　too
little　to　do　with　things。　I　am　as　little　disposed　as　any　one　can　well
be　to　narrow　early　education　and　to　make　the　primary　school　a　mere
annexe　of　the　shop。　And　it　is　not　so　much　in　the　interests　of
industry；　as　in　that　of　breadth　of　culture；　that　I　echo　the　common
complaint　against　the　bookish　and　theoretical　character　of　our　primary
instruction。

If　there　were　no　such　things　as　industrial　pursuits；　a　system　of
education　which　does　nothing　for　the　faculties　of　observation；　which
trains　neither　the　eye　nor　the　hand；　and　is　compatible　with　utter
ignorance　of　the　commonest　natural　truths；　might　still　be　reasonably
regarded　as　strangely　imperfect。　And　when　we　consider　that　the
instruction　and　training　which　are　lacking　are　exactly；　those　which
are　of　most　importance　for　the　great　mass　of　our　population；　the　fault
becomes　almost　a　crime；　the　more　that　there　is　no　practical　difficulty
in　making　good　these　defects。　There　really　is　no　reason　why　drawing
should　not　be　universally　taught；　and　it　is　an　admirable　training　for
both　eye　and　hand。　Artists　are　born；　not　made；　but　everybody　may　be
taught　to　draw　elevations；　plans；　and　sections；　and　pots　and　pans　are
as　good；　indeed　better；　models　for　＇221＇　this　purpose　than　the　Apollo
Belvedere。　The　plant　is　not　expensive；　and　there　is　this　excellent
quality　about　drawing　of　the　kind　indicated；　that　it　can　be　tested
almost　as　easily　and　severely　as　arithmetic。　Such　drawings　are　either
right　or　wrong；　and　if　they　are　wrong　the　pupil　can　be　made　to　see
that　they　are　wrong。　From　the　industrial　point　of　view；　drawing　has
the　further　merit　that　there　is　hardly　any　trade　in　which　the　power　of
drawing　is　not　of　daily　and　hourly　utility。　　In　the　next　place；　no
good　reason；　except　the　want　of　capable　teachers；　can　be　assigned　why
elementary　notions　of　science　should　not　be　an　element　in　general
instruction。　In　this　case；　again；　no　expensive　or　elaborate　apparatus
is　necessary。　The　commonest　thinga　candle；　a　boy's　squirt；　a　piece
of　chalkin　the　hands　of　a　teacher　who　knows　his　business；　may　be
made　the　starting…point　whence　children　may　be　led　into　the　regions　of
science　as　far　as　their　capacity　permits；　with　efficient　exercise　of
their　observational　and　reasoning　faculties　on　the　road。　If　object
lessons　often　prove　trivial　failures；　it　is　not　the　fault　of　object
lessons；　but　that　of　the　teacher；　who　has　not　found　out　how　much　the
power　of　teaching　a　little　depends　on　knowing　a　great　deal；　and　that
thoroughly；　and　that　he　has　not　made　that　discovery　is　not　the　fault
of　the　teachers；　but　of　the　detestable　system　of　training　them　which
is　widely　prevalent。*

　　　　*　Training　in　the　use　of　simple　tools　is　no　doubt　desirable；
　　　　on　all　grounds。　From　the　point　of　view　of　〃culture；〃　the
　　　　man　whose　〃fingers　are　all　thumbs〃　is　but　a　stunted
　　　　creature。　But　the　practical　difficulties　in　the　way　of
　　　　introducing　handiwork　of　this　kind　into　elementary　schools
　　　　appear　to　me　to　be　considerable。

＇222＇　As　I　have　said；　I　do　not　regard　the　proposal　to　add　these　to　the
present　subjects　of　universal　instruction　as　made　merely　in　the
interests　of　industry。　Elementary　science　and　drawing　are　just　as
needful　at　Eton　（where　I　am　happy　to　say　both　are　now　parts　of　the
regular　course）　as　in　the　lowest　primary　school。　But　their　importance
in　the　education　of　the　artisan　is　enhanced；　not　merely　by　the　fact
that　the　knowledge　and　skill　thus　gainedlittle　as　they　may　amount
towill　still　be　of　practical　utility　to　him；　but；　further；　because
they　constitute　an　introduction　to　that　special　training　which　is
commonly　called　〃technical　education。〃

I　conceive　that　our　wants　in　this　last　direction　may　be　grouped　under
three　heads：　（1）　Instruction　in　the　principles　of　those　branches　of
science　and　of　art　which　are　peculiarly　applicable　to　industrial
pursuits；　which　may　be　called　preliminary　scientific　education。　（2）
Instruction　in　the　special　branches　of　such　applied　science　and　art；
as　technical　education　proper。　（3）　Instruction　of　teachers　in　both
these　branches。　（4）　Capacity…catching　machinery。

A　great　deal　has　already　been　done　in　each　of　these　directions；　but
much　remains　to　be　done。　If　elementary　education　is　amended　in　the　way
＇223＇　that　has　been　suggested；　I　think　that　the　school　boards　will
have　quite　as　much　on　their　hands　as　they　are　capable　of　doing　well。
The　influences　under　which　the　members　of　these　bodies　are　elected　do
not　tend　to　secure　fitness　for　dealing　with　scientific　or　technical
education；　and　it　is　the　less　necessary　to　burden　them　with　an
uncongenial　task　as　there　are　other　organizations；　not　only　much
better　fitted　to　do　the　work；　but　already　actually　doing　it。

In　the　matter　of　preliminary　scientific　education；　the　chief　of　these
is　the　Science　and　Art　Department；　which　has　done　more　during　the　last
quarter　of　a　century　for　the　teaching　of　elementary　science　among　the
masses　of　the　people　than　any　organization　which　exists　either　in　this
or　in　any　other　country。　It　has　become　veritably　a　people's
university；　so　far　as　physical　science　is　concerned。　At　the　foundation
of　our　old　universities　they　were　freely　open　to　the　poorest；　but　the
poorest　must　come　to　them。　In　the　last　quarter　of　a　century；　the
Science　and　Art　Department；　by　means　of　its　classes　spread　all　over
the　country　and　open　to　all；　has　conveyed　instruction　to　the　poorest。
The　University　Extension　movement　shows　that　our　older　learned
corporations　have　discovered　the　propriety　of　following　suit。

Technical　education；　in　the　strict　sense；　has　become　a　necessity　for
two　reasons。　The　old　apprenticeship　system　has　broken　down；　partly　by
＇224＇　reason　of　the　changed　conditions　of　industrial　life；　and　partly
because　trades　have　ceased　to　be　〃crafts；〃　the　traditional　secrets
whereof　the　master　handed　down　to　his　apprentices。　Invention　is
constantly　changing　the　face　of　our　industries；　so　that　〃use　and
wont；〃　〃rule　of　thumb；〃　and　the　like；　are　gradually　losing　their
importance；　while　that　knowledge　of　principles　which　alone　can　deal
successfully　with　changed　conditions　is　becoming　more　and　more
valuable。　Socially；　the　〃master〃　of　four　or　five　apprentices　is
disappearing　in　favour　of　the　〃employer〃　of　forty；　or　four　hundred；　or
four　thousand；　〃hands；〃　and　the　odds　and　ends　of　technical　knowledge；
formerly　picked　up　in　a　shop；　are　not；　and　cannot　be；　supplied　in　the
factory。　The　instruction　formerly　given　by　the　master　must　therefore
be　more　than　replaced　by　the　systematic　teaching　of　the　technical
school。

Institutions　of　this　kind　on　varying　scales　of　magnitude　and
completeness；　from　the　splendid　edifice　set　up　by　the　City　and　Guilds
Institute　to　the　smallest　local　technical　school；　to　say　nothing　of
classes；　such　as　those　in　technology　instituted　by　the　Society　of　Arts
（subsequently　taken　over　by　the　City　Guilds）；　have　been　established　in
various　parts　of　the　country；　and　the　movement　in　favour　of　their
increase　and　multiplication　is　rapidly　growing　in　breadth　and
intensity。　But　there　is　much　difference　of　opinion　as　to　the　best
＇225＇　way　in　which　the　technical　instruction；　so　generally　desired；
should　be　given。　Two　courses　appear　to　be　practicable：　the　one　is　the
establishment　of　special　technical　schools　with　a　systematic　and
lengthened　course　of　instruction　demanding　the　employment　of　the　whole
time　of　the　pupils。　The　other　is　the　setting　afoot　of　technical
classes；　especially　evening　classes；　comprising　a　short　series　of
lessons　on　some　special　topic；　which　may　be　attended　by　persons
already　earning　wages　in　some　branch　of　trade　or　commerce。

There　is　no　doubt　that　technical　schools；　on　the　plan　indicated　under
the　first　head；　are　extremely　costly；　and；　so　far　as　the　teaching　of
artisans　is　concerned；　it　is　very　commonly　objected　to　them　that；　as
the　learners　do　not　work　under　trade　conditions；　they　are　apt　to　fall
into　amateurish　habits；　which　prove　of　more　hindrance　than　service　in
the　actual　business　of　life。　　When　such　schools　are　attached　to
factories　under　the　direction　of　an　employer　who　desires　to　train　up　a
supply　of　intelligent　workmen；　of　course　this　objection　does　not
apply；　nor　can　the　usefulness　of　such　schools　for　the　training　of
future　employers　and　for　the　higher　grade　of　the　employed　be　doubtful；
but　they　are　clearly　out　of　the　reach　of　the　great　mass　of　the　people；
who　have　to　earn　their　bread　as　soon　as　possible。　We　must　therefore
look　to　the　classes；　and　especially　to　evening　classes；　as　the　great
instrument　for　the　technical　＇226＇　education　of　the　artisan。　The
utility　of　such　classes　has　now　been　placed　beyond　all　doubt；　the　only
question　which　remains　is　to　find　the　ways　and　means　of　extending
them。

We　are　here；　as　in　all　other　questions　of　social　organization；　met　by
two　diametrically　opposed　views。　On　the　one　hand；　the　methods　pursued
in　foreign　countries　are　held　up　as　our　example。　The　State　is　exhorted
to　take　the　matter　in　hand　and　establish　a　great　system　of　technical
education。　On　the　other　hand；　many　economists　of　the　individualist
school　exhaust　the　resources　of　language　in　condemning　and
repudiating；　not　merely　the　interference　of　the　general　government　in
such　matters；　but　the　application　of　a　farthing　of　the　funds　raised　by
local　taxation　to　these　purposes。　I　entertain　a　strong　conviction
that；　in　this　country；　at　any　rate；　the　State　had　much　better　leave
purely　technical　and　trade　instruction　alone。　But；　although　my
personal　leanings　are　decidedly　towards　the　individualists；　I　have
arrived　at　that　conclusion　on　merely　practical　grounds。　In　fact；　my
individualism　is　rather　of　a　sentimental　sort；　and　I　sometimes　think　I
should　be　stronger　in　the　faith　if　it　were　less　vehemently　advocated。*
I　am　unable　to　see　that　civil　society　is　anything　but　a　corporation
established　＇227＇　for　a　moral　object　onlynamely；　the　good　of　its
membersand　therefore　that　it　may　take　such　measures　as　seem　fitting
for　the　attainment　of　that　which　the　general　voice　decides　to　be　the
general　good。　That　the　suffrage　of　the　majority　is　by　no　means　a
scientific　test　of　social　good　and　evil　is　unfortunately　too　true；
but；　in　practice；　it　is　the　only　test　we　can　apply；　and　the　refusal　to
abide　by　it　means　anarchy。　The　purest　despotism　that　ever　existed　is
as　much　based　upon　that　will　of　the　majority　（which　is　usually
submission　to　the　will　of　a　small　minority）　as　the　freest　republic。
Law　is　the