evolution and ethics and other essays-第13章

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strawberry　plant　behave。　A　thin　cylinder　of　living　tissue　keeps　on
growing　at　its　free　end；　until　it　attains　a　considerable　length。　At
＇88＇　successive　intervals；　it　develops　buds　which　grow　into　strawberry
plants；　and　these　become　independent　by　the　death　of　the　parts　of　the
sucker　which　connect　them。　The　rest　of　the　sucker；　however；　may　go　on
living　and　growing　indefinitely；　and；　circumstances　remaining
favourable；　there　is　no　obvious　reason　why　it　should　ever　die。　The
living　substance　B；　in　a　manner；　answers　to　the　sucker。　If　we　could
restore　the　continuity　which　was　once　possessed　by　the　portions　of　B；
contained　in　all　the　individuals　of　a　direct　line　of　descent；　they
would　form　a　sucker；　or　stolon；　on　which　these　individuals　would　be
strung；　and　which　would　never　have　wholly　died。

A　species　remains　unchanged　so　long　as　the　potentiality　of　development
resident　in　B　remains　unaltered；　so　long；　e。g。；　as　the　buds　of　the
strawberry　sucker　tend　to　become　typical　strawberry　plants。　In　the　case
of　the　progressive　evolution　of　a　species；　the　developmental
potentiality　of　B　becomes　of　a　higher　and　higher　order。　In
retrogressive　evolution；　the　contrary　would　be　the　case。　The　phenomena
of　atavism　seem　to　show　that　retrogressive　evolution　that　is；　the
return　of　a　species　to　one　or　other　of　its　earlier　forms；　is　a
possibility　to　be　reckoned　with。　The　simplification　of　structure；
which　is　so　common　in　the　parasitic　members　of　a　group；　however；　does
not　properly　come　under　this　head。　The　worm…like；　limbless　Lernoea　has
no　resemblance　to　any　of　the　stages　of　development　of　the　many…limbed
active　animals　of　the　group　to　which　it　belongs。　＇89＇　Note　2　（p。　49）。

Heracleitus　says；＇Greek　phrase　Potamo　gar　ouk　esti　dis　embenai　to　suto＇
but；　to　be　strictly　accurate；　the　river　remains；　though　the　water　of
which　it　is　composed　changesjust　as　a　man　retains　his　identity
though　the　whole　substance　of　his　body　is　constantly　shifting。

This　is　put　very　well　by　Seneca　（Ep。　lvii。　i。　20；　Ed。　Ruhkopf）：
〃Corpora　nostra　rapiuntur　fluminum　more；　quidquid　vides　currit　cum
tempore；　nihil　ex　his　quae　videmus　manet。　Ego　ipse　dum　loquor　mutari
ista；　mutatus　sum。　Hoc　est　quod　ait　Heraclitus　'In　idem　flumen　bis　non
descendimus。'　Manet　idem　fluminis　nomen；　aqua　transmissa　est。　Hoc　in
amne　manifestius　est　quam　in　homine；　sed　nos　quoque　non　minus　velox
cursus　praetervehit。〃

Note　3　（p。　55）。

〃Multa　bona　nostra　nobis　nocent；　timoris　enim　tormentum　memorin
reducit；　providentia　anticipat。　Nemo　tantum　praesentibus　miser　est。〃
（Seneca；　Ed。　v。　　7。）

Among　the　many　wise　and　weighty　aphorisms　of　the　Roman　Bacon；　few　sound
the　realities　of　life　more　deeply　than　〃Multa　bona　nostra　nobis
nocent。〃　If　there　is　a　soul　of　good　in　things　evil；　it　is　at　least
equally　true　that　there　is　a　soul　of　evil　in　things　good：　for　things；
like　men；　have　〃les　defauts　de　leurs　qualites。〃　It　is　one　of　the　last
lessons　one　learns　from　experience；　but　not　the　least　important；　that
a　＇90＇　heavy　tax　is　levied　upon　all　forms　of　success；　and　that　failure
is　one　of　the　commonest　disguises　assumed　by　blessings。

Note　4　（p。　60）。

〃There　is　within　the　body　of　every　man　a　soul　which；　at　the　death　of
the　body；　flies　away　from　it　like　a　bird　out　of　a　cage；　and　enters
upon　a　new　life　。。。　either　in　one　of　the　heavens　or　one　of　the　hells
or　on　this　earth。　　The　only　exception　is　the　rare　case　of　a　man　having
in　this　life　acquired　a　true　knowledge　of　God。　According　to　the
pre…Buddhistic　theory；　the　soul　of　such　a　man　goes　along　the　path　of
the　Gods　to　God；　and；　being　united　with　Him；　enters　upon　an　immortal
life　in　which　his　individuality　is　not　extinguished。　In　the　latter
theory　his　soul　is　directly　absorbed　into　the　Great　Soul；　is　lost　in
it；　and　has　no　longer　any　independent　existence。　The　souls　of　all
other　men　enter；　after　the　death　of　the　body；　upon　a　new　existence　in
one　or　other　of　the　many　different　modes　of　being。　If　in　heaven　or
hell；　the　soul　itself　becomes　a　god　or　demon　without　entering　a　body；
all　superhuman　beings；　save　the　great　gods；　being　looked　upon　as　not
eternal；　but　merely　temporary　creatures。　If　the　soul　returns　to　earth
it　may　or　may　not　enter　a　new　body；　and　this　either　of　a　human　being；
an　animal；　a　plant；　or　even　a　material　object。　For　all　these　are
possessed　of　souls；　and　there　is　no　essential　difference　between　these
souls　and　the　souls　of　menall　being　alike　mere　sparks　of　the　Great
Spirit；　who　is　＇91＇　the　only　real　existence。〃　（Rhys　Davids；　Hibbert
Lectures；　1881；　p。　83。）

For　what　I　have　said　about　Indian　Philosophy；　I　am　particularly
indebted　to　the　luminous　exposition　of　primitive　Buddhism　and　its
relations　to　earlier　Hindu　thought；　which　is　given　by　Prof。　Rhys
Davids　in　his　remarkable　Hibbert　Lectures　for　1881；　and　Buddhism
（1890）。　The　only　apology　I　can　offer　for　the　freedom　with　which　I　have
borrowed　from　him　in　these　notes；　is　my　desire　to　leave　no　doubt　as　to
my　indebtedness。　I　have　also　found　Dr。　Oldenberg's　Buddha　（Ed。　2；
1890）　very　helpful。　The　origin　of　the　theory　of　transmigration　stated
in　the　above　extract　is　an　unsolved　problem。　That　it　differs　widely
from　the　Egyptian　metempsychosis　is　clear。　In　fact；　since　men　usually
people　the　other　world　with　phantoms　of　this；　the　Egyptian　doctrine
would　seem　to　presuppose　the　Indian　as　a　more　archaic　belief。

Prof。　Rhys　Davids　has　fully　insisted　upon　the　ethical　importance　of
the　transmigration　theory。　〃One　of　the　latest　speculations　now　being
put　forward　among　ourselves　would　seek　to　explain　each　man's
character；　and　even　his　outward　condition　in　life；　by　the　character　he
inherited　from　his　ancestors；　a　character　gradually　formed　during　a
practically　endless　series　of　past　existences；　modified　only　by　the
conditions　into　which　he　was　born；　those　very　conditions　being　also；
in　like　manner；　the　last　result　of　a　practically　endless　series　of
past　causes。　Gotama's；　speculation　might　be　stated　in　the　same　words。
But　it　attempted　also　to　explain；　in　a　way　different　from　＇92＇　that
which　would　be　adopted　by　the　exponents　of　the　modern　theory；　that
strange　problem　which　it　is　also　the　motive　of　the　wonderful　drama　of
the　book　of　Job　to　explainthe　fact　that　the　actual　distribution　here
of　good　fortune；　or　misery；　is　entirely　independent　of　the　moral
qualities　which　men　call　good　or　bad。　We　cannot　wonder　that　a　teacher；
whose　whole　system　was　so　essentially　an　ethical　reformation；　should
have　felt　it　incumbent　upon　him　to　seek　an　explanation　of　this
apparent　injustice。　And　all　the　more　so；　since　the　belief　he　had
inherited；　the　theory　of　the　transmigration　of　souls；　had　provided　a
solution　perfectly　sufficient　to　any　one　who　could　accept　that
belief。〃　（Hibbert　Lectures；　p。　93。）　I　should　venture　to　suggest　the
substitution　of　〃largely〃　for　〃entirely〃　in　the　foregoing　passage。
Whether　a　ship　makes　a　good　or　a　bad　voyage　is　largely　independent　of
the　conduct　of　the　captain；　but　it　is　largely　affected　by　that
conduct。　Though　powerless　before　a　hurricane　he　may　weather　a　bad
gale。

Note　5　（P。　61）。

The　outward　condition　of　the　soul　is；　in　each　new　birth；　determined　by
its　actions　in　a　previous　birth；　but　by　each　action　in　succession；　and
not　by　the　balance　struck　after　the　evil　has　been　reckoned　off　against
the　good。　A　good　man　who　has　once　uttered　a　slander　may　spend　a
hundred　thousand　years　as　a　god；　in　consequence　of　his　goodness；　and
when　the　power　of　his　good　actions　is　exhausted；　may　be　born　＇93＇　as　a
dumb　man　on　account　of　his　transgression；　and　a　robber　who　has　once
done　an　act　of　mercy；　may　come　to　life　in　a　king's　body　as　the　result
of　his　virtue；　and　then　suffer　torments　for　ages　in　hell　or　as　a　ghost
without　a　body；　or　be　re…born　many　times　as　a　slave　or　an　outcast；　in
consequence　of　his　evil　life。

〃There　is　no　escape；　according　to　this　theory；　from　the　result　of　any
act；　though　it　is　only　the　consequences　of　its　own　acts　that　each　soul
has　to　endure。　The　force　has　been　set　in　motion　by　itself　and　can
never　stop；　and　its　effect　can　never　be　foretold。　If　evil；　it　can
never　be　modified　or　prevented；　for　it　depends　on　a　cause　already
completed；　that　is　now　for　ever　beyond　the　soul's　control。　There　is
even　no　continuing　consciousness；　no　memory　of　the　past　that　could
guide　the　soul　to　any　knowledge　of　its　fate。　　The　only　advantage　open
to　it　is　to　add　in　this　life　to　the　sum　of　its　good　actions；　that　it
may　bear　fruit　with　the　rest。　And　even　this　can　only　happen　in　some
future　life　under　essentially　them　same　conditions　as　the　present　one：
subject；　like　the　present　one；　to　old　age；　decay；　and　death；　and
affording　opportunity；　like　the　present　one；　for　the　commission　of
errors；　ignorances；　or　sins；　which　in　their　turn　must　inevitably
produce　their　due　effect　of　sickness；　disability；　or　woe。　Thus　is　the
soul　tossed　about　from　life　to　life；　from　billow　to　billow　in　the
great　ocean　of　transmigration。　　And　there　is　no　escape　save　for　the
very　few；　who；　during　their　birth　as　men；　attain　to　a　right　knowledge
of　the　Great　Spirit：　and　thus　enter　into　immortality；　or；　as　the　later
＇94＇　philosophers　taught；　are　absorbed　into　the　Divine　Essence。〃　（Rhys
Davids；　Hibbert　Lectures；　pp。　85；　86。）

The　state　after　death　thus　imagined　by　the　Hindu　philosophers　has　a
certain　analogy　to　the　purgatory　of　the　Roman　Church；　except　that
escape　from　it　is　dependent；　not　on　a　divine　decree　modified；　it　may
be；　by　sacerdotal　or　saintly　intercession；　but　by　the　acts　of　the
individual　himself；　and　that　while　ultimate　emergence　into　heavenly
bliss　of　the　good；　or　well…prayed　for；　Catholic　is　professedly
assured；　the　chances　in　favour　of　the　attainment　of　absorption；　or　of
Nirvana；　by　any　individual　Hindu　are　extremely　small。

Note　6　（P。　62）。

〃That　part　of　the　then　prevalent　transmigration　theory　which　could　not
be　proved　false　seemed　to　meet　a　deeply　felt　necessity；　seemed　to
supply　a　moral　cause　which　would　explain　the　unequal　distribution　here
of　happiness　or　woe；　so　utterly　inconsistent　with　the　present
characters　of　men。〃　Gautama　〃still　therefore　talked　of　men's　previous
existence；　but　by　no　means　in　the　way　that　he　is　generally　represented
to　have　done。〃　What　he　taught　was　〃the　transmigration　of　character。〃
He　held　that　after　the　death　of　any　being；　whether　human　or　not；　there
survived　nothing　at　all　but　that　being's　〃Karma；〃　the　result；　that　is；
of　its　mental　and　bodily　actions。　Every　individual；　whether　human　or
divine；　was　the　last　inheritor　and　the　last　result　of　the　Karma　of　a
long　series　of　past　individuals〃a　series　＇95＇　so　long　that　its
beginning　is　beyond　the　reach　of　calculation；　and　its　end　will　be
coincident　with　the　destruction　of　the　world。〃　（Rhys　Davids；　Hibbert
Lectures；　p。　92。）

In　the　theory　of　evolution；　the　tendency　of　a　germ　to　develop　according
to　a　certain　specific　type；　e。g。　of　the　kidney　bean　seed　to　grow　into
a　plant　having　all　the　characters　of　Phaseolus　vulgaris；　is　its
〃Karma。〃　It　is　the　〃last　inheritor　and　the　last　result〃　of　all　the
conditions　that　have　affected　a　line　of　ancestry　which　goes　back　for
many　millions　of　years　to　the　time　when　life　first　appeared　on　the
earth。　The　moiety　B　of　the　substance　of　the　bean　plant　（see　Note　1）　is
the　last　link　in　a　once　continuou