evolution and ethics and other essays-第11章

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a　doctrine　and　I　will　find　the　reasons　for　it；〃　said　Chrysippus。　So
they　perfected；　if　they　did　not　invent；　that　ingenious　and　plausible
form　of　pleading；　the　Theodicy；　for　the　purpose　of　showing　firstly；
that　there　is　no　such　＇72＇　thing　as　evil；　secondly；　that　if　there　is；
it　is　the　necessary　correlate　of　good；　and；　moreover；　that　it　is
either　due　to　our　own　fault；　or　inflicted　for　our　benefit。　Theodicies
have　been　very　popular　in　their　time；　and　I　believe　that　a　numerous；
though　somewhat　dwarfed；　progeny　of　them　still　survives。　So　far　as　I
know；　they　are　all　variations　of　the　theme　set　forth　in　those　famous
six　lines　of　the　〃Essay　on　Man；〃　in　which　Pope　sums　up　Bolingbroke's
reminiscences　of　stoical　and　other　speculations　of　this　kind

　　　　〃All　nature　is　but　art；　unknown　to　thee；
　　　　　All　chance；　direction　which　thou　canst　not　see；
　　　　　All　discord；　harmony　not　understood；
　　　　　All　partial　evil；　universal　good；
　　　　　And　spite　of　pride；　in　erring　reason's　spite；
　　　　　One　truth　is　clear：　whatever　is　is　right。〃

Yet；　surely；　if　there　are　few　more　important　truths　than　those
enunciated　in　the　first　triad；　the　second　is　open　to　very　grave
objections。　That　there　is　a　〃soul　of　good　in　things　evil〃　is
unquestionable；　nor　will　any　wise　man　deny　the　disciplinary　value　of
pain　and　sorrow。　But　these　considerations　do　not　help　us　to　see　why
the　immense　multitude　of　irresponsible　sentient　beings；　which　cannot
profit　by　such　discipline；　should　suffer；　nor　why；　among　the　endless
possibilities　open　to　omnipotencethat　of　sinless；　happy　existence
among　the　restthe　actuality　in　which　sin　and　misery　abound　should　be
that　selected。

＇73＇　Surely　it　is　mere　cheap　rhetoric　to　call　arguments　which　have
never　yet　been　answered　by　even　the　meekest　and　the　least　rational　of
Optimists；　suggestions　of　the　pride　of　reason。　As　to　the　concluding
aphorism；　its　fittest　place　would　be　as　an　inscription　in　letters　of
mud　over　the　portal　of　some　〃stye　of　Epicurus〃＇Note　14＇；　for　that　is
where　the　logical　application　of　it　to　practice　would　land　men；　with
every　aspiration　stifled　and　every　effort　paralyzed。　Why　try　to　set
right　what　is　right　already？　Why　strive　to　improve　the　best　of　all
possible　worlds？　Let　us　eat　and　drink；　for　as　today　all　is　right；　so
to…morrow　all　will　be。

But　the　attempt　of　the　Stoics　to　blind　themselves　to　the　reality　of
evil；　as　a　necessary　concomitant　of　the　cosmic　process；　had　less
success　than　that　of　the　Indian　philosophers　to　exclude　the　reality　of
good　from　their　purview。　　Unfortunately；　it　is　much　easier　to　shut
one's　eyes　to　good　than　to　evil。　　Pain　and　sorrow　knock　at　our　doors
more　loudly　than　pleasure　and　happiness；　and　the　prints　of　their　heavy
footsteps　are　less　easily　effaced。　Before　the　grim　realities　of
practical　life　the　pleasant　fictions　of　optimism　vanished。　　If　this
were　the　best　of　all　possible　worlds；　it　nevertheless　proved　itself　a
very　inconvenient　habitation　for　the　ideal　sage。

The　stoical　summary　of　the　whole　duty　of　man；　〃Live　according　to
nature；〃　would　seem　to　imply　that　the　cosmic　process　is　an　exemplar
for　human　＇74＇　conduct。　Ethics　would　thus　become　applied　Natural
History。　In　fact；　a　confused　employment　of　the　maxim；　in　this　sense；
has　done　immeasurable　mischief　in　later　times。　It　has　furnished　an
axiomatic　foundation　for　the　philosophy　of　philosophasters　and　for　the
moralizing　of　sentimentalists。　But　the　Stoics　were；　at　bottom；　not
merely　noble；　but　sane；　men；　and　if　we　look　closely　into　what　they
really　meant　by　this　ill…used　phrase；　it　will　be　found　to　present　no
justification　for　the　mischievous　conclusions　that　have　been　deduced
from　it。

In　the　language　of　the　Stoa；　〃Nature〃　was　a　word　of　many　meanings。
There　was　the　〃Nature〃　of　the　cosmos　and　the　〃Nature〃　of　man。　In　the
latter；　the　animal　〃nature；〃　which　man　shares　with　a　moiety　of　the
living　part　of　the　cosmos；　was　distinguished　from　a　higher　〃nature。〃
Even　in　this　higher　nature　there　were　grades　of　rank。　The　logical
faculty　is　an　instrument　which　may　be　turned　to　account　for　any
purpose。　The　passions　and　the　emotions　are　so　closely　tied　to　the
lower　nature　that　they　may　be　considered　to　be　pathological；　rather
than　normal；　phenomena。　The　one　supreme；　hegemonic；　faculty；　which
constitutes　the　essential　〃nature〃　of　man；　is　most　nearly　represented
by　that　which；　in　the　language　of　a　later　philosophy；　has　been　called
the　pure　reason。　It　is　this　〃nature〃　which　holds　up　the　ideal　of　the
supreme　good　and　demands　absolute　submission　of　the　will　to　its
behests。　It　is　＇75＇　which　commands　all　men　to　love　one　another；　to
return　good　for　evil；　to　regard　one　another　as　fellow…citizens　of　one
great　state。　Indeed；　seeing　that　the　progress　towards　perfection　of　a
civilized　state；　or　polity；　depends　on　the　obedience　of　its　members　to
these　commands；　the　Stoics　sometimes　termed　the　pure　reason　the
〃political〃　nature。　Unfortunately；　the　sense　of　the　adjective　has
undergone　so　much　modification；　that　the　application　of　it　to　that
which　commands　the　sacrifice　of　self　to　the　common　good　would　now
sound　almost　grotesque。　＇Note　15＇

But　what　part　is　played　by　the　theory　of　evolution　in　this　view　of
ethics？　　So　far　as　I　can　discern；　the　ethical　system　of　the　Stoics；
which　is　essentially　intuitive；　and　reverences　the　categorical
imperative　as　strongly　as　that　of　any　later　moralists；　might　have　been
just　what　it　was　if　they　had　held　any　other　theory；　whether　that　of
special　creation；　on　the　one　side；　or　that　of　the　eternal　existence　of
the　present　order；　on　the　other。＇Note　16＇　To　the　Stoic；　the　cosmos　had
no　importance　for　the　conscience；　except　in　so　far　as　he　chose　to
think　it　a　pedagogue　to　virtue。　The　pertinacious　optimism　of　our
philosophers　hid　from　them　the　actual　state　of　the　case。　It　prevented
them　from　seeing　that　cosmic　nature　is　no　school　of　virtue；　but　the
headquarters　of　the　enemy　of　ethical　nature。　The　logic　of　facts　was
necessary　to　convince　them　＇76＇　that　the　cosmos　works　through　the
lower　nature　of　man；　not　for　righteousness；　but　against　it。　And　it
finally　drove　them　to　confess　that　the　existence　of　their　ideal　〃wise
man〃　was　incompatible　with　the　nature　of　things；　that　even　a　passable
approximation　to　that　ideal　was　to　be　attained　only　at　the　cost　of
renunciation　of　the　world　and　mortification；　not　merely　of　the　flesh；
but　of　all　human　affections。　The　state　of　perfection　was　that
〃apatheia〃＇Note　17＇　in　which　desire；　though　it　may　still　be　felt；　is
powerless　to　move　the　will；　reduced　to　the　sole　function　of　executing
the　commands　of　pure　reason。　Even　this　residuum　of　activity　was　to　be
regarded　as　a　temporary　loan；　as　an　efflux　of　the　divine
world…pervading　spirit；　chafing　at　its　imprisonment　in　the
flesh；…until　such　time　as　death　enabled　it　to　return　to　its　source　in
the　all…pervading　logos。

I　find　it　difficult　to　discover　any　very　great　difference　between
Apatheia　and　Nirvana；　except　that　stoical　speculation　agrees　with
pre…Buddhistic　philosophy；　rather　than　with　the　teachings　of　Gautama；
in　so　far　as　it　postulates　a　permanent　substance　equivalent　to
〃Brahma〃　and　〃Atman；〃　and　that；　in　stoical　practice；　the　adoption　of
the　life　of　the　mendicant　cynic　was　held　to　be　more　a　counsel　of
perfection　than　an　indispensable　condition　of　the　higher　life。

Thus　the　extremes　touch。　Greek　thought　and　＇77＇　Indian　thought　set　out
from　ground　common　to　both；　diverge　widely；　develop　under　very
different　physical　and　moral　conditions；　and　finally　converge　to
practically　the　same　end。

The　Vedas　and　the　Homeric　epos　set　before　us　a　world　of　rich　and
vigorous　life；　full　of　joyous　fighting　men

　　　　　That　ever　with　a　frolic　welcome　took
　　　　　The　thunder　and　the　sunshine　。。。。

and　who　were　ready　to　brave　the　very　Gods　themselves　when　their　blood
was　up。　A　few　centuries　pass　away；　and　under　the　influence　of
civilization　the　descendants　of　these　men　are　〃sicklied　o'er　with　the
pale　cast　of　thought〃frank　pessimists；　or；　at　best；　make…believe
optimists。　The　courage　of　the　warlike　stock　may　be　as　hardly　tried　as
before；　perhaps　more　hardly；　but　the　enemy　is　self。　The　hero　has
become　a　monk。　The　man　of　action　is　replaced　by　the　quietist；　whose
highest　aspiration　is　to　be　the　passive　instrument　of　the　divine
Reason。　By　the　Tiber；　as　by　the　Ganges；　ethical　man　admits　that　the
cosmos　is　too　strong　for　him；　and；　destroying　every　bond　which　ties
him　to　it　by　ascetic　discipline；　he　seeks　salvation　in　absolute
renunciation。＇Note　18＇

Modern　thought　is　making　a　fresh　start　from　the　base　whence　Indian　and
Greek　philosophy　set　out；　and；　the　human　mind　being　very　much　what
＇78＇　it　was　six…and…twenty　centuries　ago；　there　is　no　ground　for
wonder　if　it　presents　indications　of　a　tendency　to　move　along　the　old
lines　to　the　same　results。

We　are　more　than　sufficiently　familiar　with　modern　pessimism；　at　least
as　a　speculation；　for　I　cannot　call　to　mind　that　any　of　its　present
votaries　have　sealed　their　faith　by　assuming　the　rags　and　the　bowl　of
the　mendicant　Bhikku；　or　the　cloak　and　the　wallet　of　the　Cynic。　The
obstacles　placed　in　the　way　of　sturdy　vagrancy　by　an　unphilosophical
police　have；　perhaps；　proved　too　formidable　for　philosophical
consistency。　We　also　know　modern　speculative　optimism；　with　its
perfectibility　of　the　species；　reign　of　peace；　and　lion　and　lamb
transformation　scenes；　but　one　does　not　hear　so　much　of　it　as　one　did
forty　years　ago；　indeed；　I　imagine　it　is　to　be　met　with　more　commonly
at　the　tables　of　the　healthy　and　wealthy；　than　in　the　congregations　of
the　wise。　The　majority　of　us；　I　apprehend；　profess　neither　pessimism
nor　optimism。　We　hold　that　the　world　is　neither　so　good；　nor　so　bad；
as　it　conceivably　might　be；　and；　as　most　of　us　have　reason；　now　and
again；　to　discover　that　it　can　be。　Those　who　have　failed　to　experience
the　joys　that　make　life　worth　living　are；　probably；　in　as　small　a
minority　as　those　who　have　never　known　the　griefs　that　rob　existence
of　its　savour　and　turn　its　richest　fruits　into　mere　dust　and　ashes。

＇79＇　Further；　I　think　I　do　not　err　in　assuming　that；　however　diverse
their　views　on　philosophical　and　religious　matters；　most　men　are
agreed　that　the　proportion　of　good　and　evil　in　life　may　be　very
sensibly　affected　by　human　action。　I　never　heard　anybody　doubt　that
the　evil　may　be　thus　increased；　or　diminished；　and　it　would　seem　to
follow　that　good　must　be　similarly　susceptible　of　addition　or
subtraction。　Finally；　to　my　knowledge；　nobody　professes　to　doubt　that；
so　far　forth　as　we　possess　a　power　of　bettering　things；　it　is　our
paramount　duty　to　use　it　and　to　train　all　our　intellect　and　energy　to
this　supreme　service　of　our　kind。

Hence　the　pressing　interest　of　the　question；　to　what　extent　modern
progress　in　natural　knowledge；　and；　more　especially；　the　general
outcome　of　that　progress　in　the　doctrine　of　evolution；　is　competent　to
help　us　in　the　great　work　of　helping　one　another？

The　propounders　of　what　are　called　the　〃ethics　of　evolution；〃　when　the
〃evolution　of　ethics〃　would　usually　better　express　the　object　of　their
speculations；　adduce　a　number　of　more　or　less　interesting　facts　and
more　or　less　sound　arguments　in　favour　of　the　origin　of　the　moral
sentiments；　in　the　same　way　as　other　natural