criminal psychology-第96章

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ever　is。''　etc。　These　and　countless　other　maxims　help　us　considerably　in　individual　cases；　but　give　us　no　general　characterization　of　the　function　of　wisdom。　We　may；　therefore；　get　some　sort　of　pragmatic　insight　into　the　wisdom　or　unwisdom；　of　an　action　in　the　assertion：　‘‘To　be　wise　is　to　be　able　to　sacrifice　an　immediate　petty　advantage　to　a　later　and　greater　advantage。''　This　proposition　seems　not　to　have　sufficient　scope；　but　on　closer　examination　seems　to　fit　all　cases。　The　wise　man　lives　according　to　law；　and　sacrifices　the　petty　advantage　of　immediate　sensual　pleasure　for　the　greater　advantage　of　sustained　health。　He　is　prudent　and　sacrifices　the　immediate　petty　delights　to　the　advantage　of　a　care…　free　age。　He　is　cautious　in　his　speculation；　and　sacrifices　momentary；　doubtful；　and　hence；　petty　successes；　to　the　greater　later　success　of　certain　earning。　He　is　silent；　and　sacrifices　the　petty　advantage　of　appearing　for　the　moment　well…informed　about　all　possible　matters；　to　the　greater　advantage　of　not　getting　into　trouble　on　account　of　this。　He　commits　no　punishable　deeds；　and　sacrifices　advantages　that　might　be　gained　for　the　moment　to　the　later　greater　advantage　of　not　being　punished。　So　the　analysis　might　be　continued；　and　in　each　case　we　should　find　that　there　was　no　wisdom　which　could　not　be　explained　in　this　way。


＇1＇　ber　das　Gedchtnis　etc。　Vienna　1876。


The　use　of　our　explanatory　proposition　is　possible　in　all　cases　which　require　determining　the　real　or　apparent　participation　of　some　individual　in　a　crime。　If　the　degree　of　wisdom　a　man　may　be　credited　with　can　be　determined　by　means　of　this　analysis；　it　is　not　difficult　afterwards　to　test　by　its　use　the　probability　of　his　having　a　share　in　the　crime　in　question。

Finally；　cases　are　again　and　again　observed　in　which　very　foolish　peopleidiots　and　lunaticseither　because　of　anxiety；　terror；　wounds　in　the　head；　or　shortly　before　death；　become　intelligent　for　a　brief　period。　It　is　conceivable　that　the　improvement　of　mental　activity　in　these　cases　arises　when　the　defect　has　depended　on　the　pathological　dominance　of　an　inhibitory　center；　the　abnormally　intensified　activity　of　which　has　as　its　result　an　inhibition　of　other　important　centers　（acute；　curable　dementia；　paranoia）。　A　light；　transitory；　actual　increase　of　mental　activity；　might；　possibly；　be　explained　by　the　familiar　fact　that　cerebral　anemia；　in　its　early　stages；　is　exciting　rather　than　dulling。　Theoretically　this　might　　be　connected；　perhaps；　with　the　molecular　cell…changes　which　are　involved　in　the　disintegration　of　the　brain。　The　difference　between　the　effects　of　these　two　causes　will　hardly　be　great；　but　testimony　dependent　on　this　altered　character　of　mental　activity　will　have　little　reliability。　Hallucinations；　false　memories；　melancholic　accusations　of　self；　particularly；　may　also　be　explained　in　terms　of　such　excitement。　We　criminalists　have　frequently　to　deal　with　people　in　above…　named　conditions；　and　when　we　receive　intelligent　answers　from　them　we　must　never　set　them　aside；　but　must　carefully　make　note　of　them　and　estimate　them　in　the　light　of　expert　advice。

To　this　class　belongs　the　interesting　phenomenon　that　we　very　frequently　meet　fools　who　never　do　anything　foolish。　It　is　not　true　that　these　are　simply　misjudged；　and　only　appear　to　be　foolish。　They　are　really　foolish　but　they　are　helped　by　certain　conditions　in　every　instance　of　their　conduct。　To　begin　with；　they　are　not　so　foolish　as　to　deceive　themselves；　they　are；　therefore；　in　possession　of　a　certain　notion　of　their　own　weakness；　and　do　not　attempt　things　which　are　too　much　for　them。　Then；　they　must　have　a　certain　degree　of　luck　in　their　undertakings。　The　proverb　says　that　conceit　is　the　force　behind　the　fool；　and　if　these　fools　apply　their　conceit　to　appropriate　situations；　they　succeed。　Then　again；　they　sometimes　fail　to　see　dangers；　and　are　therefore　free　from　swindles　which　are　dangerous；　even　to　the　cleverest　persons。　‘‘The　fool　stumbles　across　the　abyss　into　which　the　wise　man　regularly　tumbles；''　says　the　proverb　again。　And　if　routine　may　properly　be　called　the　surrogate　of　talent；　we　must　suppose　that　custom　and　practice　may　carry　the　biggest　fool　so　far　as　to　help　him　in　many　cases　to　success。

According　to　Esser；　the　fool　thinks　in　terms　of　the　following　proposition：　‘‘Things　that　are　alike　in　a　few　points　are　identical；　and　things　that　are　unlike　in　a　few　points　are　altogether　diverse。''　If　this　is　true；　the　fool　can　fail　only　when　he　is　drawing　inferences　of　this　kind；　if；　however；　none　of　the　important　events　in　his　life　involve　such　inferences；　he　has　no　opportunity　to　exhibit　his　essential　foolishness。　The　same　thing　is　true　of　his　interests。　No　fool　has　a　real　eagerness　for　knowledge。　He　has；　instead；　curiosity；　and　this　can　never　be　distinguished　with　certainty　from　knowledge。　Now；　if　the　fool　is　lucky；　he　seems　to　be　moving　forward；　shows　himself　possessed　of　interests；　and　nobody　proves　that　this　possession　is　only　idiotic　curiosity。　The　fool　must　protect　himself　against　one　thing　action。　Foolishness　in　action　is　rawnesstrue　rawness　is　always　foolish　and　can　not　be　mistaken。　

Here；　again；　we　draw　the　extraordinary　conclusion　that　we　criminalists；　as　in　all　other　cases；　must　not　take　man　to　be　what　he　seems　most　of　the　time；　but　what　he　shows　himself　as；　in　exceptional　cases。　The　worst　man　may　have　done　something　absolutely　good；　the　greatest　liar　may　today　tell　the　truth；　and　the　simpleton　may　today　act　wisely。　We　are　not　concerned　with　man　as　such；　what　is　important　for　us　is　his　immediate　self…expression。　The　rest　of　his　nature　is　a　matter　of　judgment。


Topic　2。　ISOLATED　INFLUENCES。

Section　91。　（a）　Habit。

Habit　may　be　of　considerable　importance　in　criminal　law。　We　have；　first　of　all；　to　know　how　far　we　ourselves　are　influenced　in　our　thinking　and　acting　by　habit；　then　it　is　important；　in　judging　the　testimony　of　witnesses；　to　know　whether　and　how　far　the　witness　behaved　according　to　his　habits。　For　by　means　of　this　knowledge　we　may　be　able　to　see　the　likelihood　of　many　a　thing　that　might　have　otherwise　seemed　improbable。　Finally；　we　may　be　able　properly　to　estimate　many　an　excuse　offered　by　a　defendant　through　considering　his　habits；　especially　when　we　are　dealing　with　events　that　are　supposed　to　have　occurred　under　stupefaction；　absolute　intoxication；　distraction；　etc。＇1＇　Hume；　indeed；　has　assigned　to　habit　the　maximum　of　significance；　his　whole　system　depends　upon　the　use　of　habit　as　a　principle　of　explanation。　He　shows　that　the　essence　of　all　our　inferences　with　regard　to　facts　relates　to　the　principle　of　causation；　and　the　foundation　of　all　our　beliefs　in　causation　is　experience；　while　the　foundation　of　inference　from　experience　is　habit。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　it　is　strange　how　often　an　obscure　event　becomes　suddenly　clear　by　an　inquiry　into　the　possibility　of　habit　as　its　cause。　Even　everything　we　call　fashion；　custom；　presumption；　is　at　bottom　nothing　more　than　habit；　or　explicable　by　habit。　All　new　fashions　in　clothes；　in　usages；　etc。；　are　disliked　until　one　becomes　habituated　to　them；　and　custom　and　morality　must　attach　themselves　to　the　iron　law　of　habit。　What　would　my　grandmother　have　said　of　a　woman　whom　she　might　have　seen　happily　bicycling　through　the　streets！　How　every　German　citizen　crosses　himself　when　he　sees　French　sea…bathing！　And　if　we　had　no　idea　of　a　ball　among　the　four　hundred　what　should　we　say　if　we　heard　that　in　the　evening　men　meet　half…naked　women；　embrace　them　vigorously；　pull　them　　round；　and　bob　and　stamp　through　the　hall　with　disgusting　noise　until　they　must　stop；　pouring　perspiration；　gasping　for　breath？　But　because　we　are　accustomed　to　it；　we　are　satisfied　with　it。　To　see　what　influence　habit　has　on　our　views　of　this　subject；　just　close　your　ears　tightly　at　some　ball　and　watch　the　dancers。　As　soon　as　you　stop　hearing　the　music　you　think　you　are　in　a　lunatic　asylum。　Indeed；　you　do　not　need　to　select　such　a　really　foolish　case。　Helmholtz　suggests　looking　at　a　man　walking　in　the　distance；　through　the　large　end　of　a　telescope。　What　extraordinary　humping　and　rocking　of　the　body　the　passer…by　exhibits！　There　are　any　number　of　such　examples；　and　if　we　inquire　concerning　the　permissibility　of　certain　events　we　simply　carry　the　question　of　habit　into　the　field　of　conduct。　Hunting　harmless　animals；　vivisection；　the　execution　of　back…breaking　tricks；　ballets；　and　numerous　other　things；　will　seem　to　us　shocking；　inconceivable；　disgusting；　if　we　are　not　habituated　to　them。　What　here　requires　thought　is　the　fact　that　we　criminalists　often　judge　situations　we　do　not　know。　When　the　peasant；　the　unskilled　laborer；　or　the　craftsman；　does　anything；　we　know　only　superficially　the　deed's　nature　and　real　status。　We　have；　as　a　rule；　no　knowledge　of　the　perpetrator's　habits；　and　when　we　regard　some　one　of　his　actions　as　most　reprehensible；quarrel　or　insult　or　maltreatment　of　his　wife　or　childrenhe　responds　to　us　with　a　most　astounded　expression。　He　is　not　habituated　to　anything　else；　and　we　do　not　teach　him　a　better　way　by　punishing　him。


＇1＇　H。　Gross's　Archiv。　II；　140；　III；　350；　VII；　155；　XIII；　161；　XIV；　189。


Questions　of　this　sort；　however；　deal　with　the　generality　of　human　nature；　and　do　not　directly　concern　us。　But　directly　we　are　required　to　make　a　correct　judgment　of　testimony　concerning　habit；　they　will　help　us　to　more　just　interpretations　and　will　reduce　the　number　of　crass　contradictions。　This　is　so　because　many　an　assertion　will　seem　probable　when　the　witness　shows　that　the　thing　described　was　habitual。　No　definite　boundary　can　be　drawn　between　skill　and　habit；　and　we　may；　perhaps；　say　rightly；　that　skill　is　possible　only　where　habit　exists；　and　habit　is　present　where　a　certain　amount　of　skill　has　been　attained。　Skill；　generally；　is　the　capacity　of　speedy　habituation。　But　a　distinction　must　be　drawn。　Habit　makes　actions　easy。　Habituation　makes　them　necessary。　This　is　most　obvious　in　cases　of　bodily　skill；riding；　swimming；　skating；　cycling；　everything　in　which　habit　and　skill　can　not　be　separated；　and　with　regard　to　which　we　can　not　see　why　we　and　other　untrained　people　can　not　immediately　do　the　same　thing。　And　when　we　can　do　it；　we　do　it　without　thinking；　as　if　half　asleep。　Such　action　is　not　　skilled；　but　habitual；　i。　e。；　a　part　of　it　is　determined　by　the　body　itself　without　the　especial　guidance　of　the　mind。

We　find　the　hunter's　power　to　see　so　many　animals；　tracks；　etc。；　inconceivable。　When；　e。　g。；　we　have　once　properly　mastered　the　principle　of　a　quite　complicated　crystal；　we　cannot　understand　why　we　had　not　done　so　before。　We　feel　in　the　same　way　with　regard　to　an　unclear　drawing；　a　new　road；　some　bodily　activity；　etc。　Anybody　who　has　not　acquired　the　habit　might　have　to　take　all　day　to　learn　the　business　of　dressing　and　undressing　himself。　And　how　difficult　it　is　just　to　walk；　a　thing　we　do　unconsciously；　is　confirmed　by　the　mechanic　who　wants　to　construct　a　walking　figure。

That　all　people　are　equally　subject　to　habit；　is　not　asserted。　The　thing　is　a　matter　of　disposition；　in　the　sense　of　the　recurrence　of　past　ideas　or　tendencies。　We　must　assume　that　an　inclination　evinced　by　idea　A　makes　possible　ideas　a'；　a''；　a'''。　Habits　may　devel