criminal psychology-第53章

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With　regard　to　the　time　it　takes　to　feel　contact　and　pain；　it　is　asserted　that　a　short　powerful　blow　on　a　corn　is　felt　immediately；　but　the　pain　of　it　one　to　two　seconds　later。　It　may　be　that　corns　have　an　especial　constitution；　but　otherwise　the　time　assigned　before　feeling　pain　is　far　too　long。　Helmholtz　made　1850　measurements　which　proved　that　the　nervous　current　moves　90　feet　a　second。　If；　then；　you　prick　your　finger；　you　feel　it　a　thirtieth　of　a　second　later。　The　easiest　experiments　which　may　be　made　in　that　regard　are　insufficient　to　establish　anything　definite。　We　can　only　say　that　the　perception　of　a　peripheral　pain　occurs　an　observable　period　after　the　shock；　i。　e。；　about　a　third　of　a　second　later　than　its　cause。

The　sensation　of　a　stab　is　often　identified　as　contact　with　a　hot　object；　and　it　is　further　asserted　that　the　wounded　person　feels　close　to　the　pain　which　accompanies　the　push　or　the　cut；　the　cold　of　the　blade　and　its　presence　in　the　depths　of　his　body。　So　far　as　I　have　been　able　to　learn　from　wounded　people；　these　assertions　are　not　confirmed。　Setting　aside　individuals　who　exaggerate　intentionally　and　want　to　make　themselves　interesting　or　to　indicate　considerable　damage；　all　answers　point　to　the　fact　that　stabs；　shots；　and　blows　are　sensed　as　pushes。　In　addition；　the　rising　of　the　blood　is　felt　almost　immediately；　but　nothing　else；　pain　comes　much　later。　It　is　asserted　by　couleur…students＇1＇　who　have　occasion　to　have　a　considerable　number　of　duels　behind　them；　that　‘‘sitting　thrusts；''　even　when　they　are　made　with　the　sharpest　swords；　are　sensed　only　as　painless；　or　almost　painless；　blows　or　pushes。　Curiously　enough　all　say　that　the　sensation　is　felt　as　if　caused　by　some　very　broad　dull　tool：　a　falling　shingle；　perhaps。　But　not　one　has　felt　the　cold　of　the　entering　blade。


＇1＇　Students　who　are　members　of　student　societies　distinguished　by　particular　colors。


Soldiers　whose　shot　wounds　were　inquired　into；　often　just　a　few　minutes　after　their　being　wounded；　have　said　unanimously　that　they　had　felt　only　a　hard　push。

It　is　quite　different　with　the　man　who　causes　the　wound。　Lotze　has　rightly　called　attention　to　the　fact　that　in　mounting　a　ladder　with　elastic　rungs　one　perceives　clearly　the　points　at　which　the　rungs　are　fastened　to　the　sides。　The　points　at　which　an　elastic　trellis　is　fastened　is　felt　when　it　is　shaken；　and　the　resistance　of　the　wood　when　an　axe　is　used　on　it。　In　the　same　way　the　soldier　senses　clearly　　the　entrance　of　his　sword…point　or　blade　into　the　body　of　his　enemy。　The　last　fact　is　confirmed　by　the　students。　One　can　clearly　distinguish　whether　the　sword　has　merely　beaten　through　the　skin　or　has　sunk　deeply　and　reached　the　bone。　And　this　sensation　of　touch　is　concentrated　in　the　_*right_　thumb；　which　is　barely　under　the　hilt　of　the　sword　at　the　point　where　the　grip　rests。

The　importance　of　the　fact　that　the　wounder　feels　his　success　lies　in　the　possibility　it　gives　him；　when　he　wants　to　tell　the　truth；　to　indicate　reliably　whether　and　how　far　he　has　wounded　his　opponent。　The　importance　of　the　testimony　of　the　wounded　man　lies　in　its　influence　on　determining；　in　cases　where　there　were　more　than　one　concerned　in　the　assault；　which　wound　is　to　be　assigned　to　which　man。　We　often　hear　from　the　victim　who　really　desires　to　tell　the　truth；　‘‘I　was　quite　convinced　that　X　dealt　me　the　deep　stab　in　the　shoulder；　but　he　has　only　pushed　and　not　stabbed　me　I　did　not　perceive　a　stab。''　Just　the　same；　it　was　X　who　stabbed　him；　and　if　the　examining　judge　explains　the　matter　to　the　victim；　his　testimony　will　be　yet　more　honest。

There　are　still　a　few　other　significant　facts。

1。　It　is　well　known　that　the　portion　of　the　skin　which　covers　a　bone　and　which　is　then　so　pulled　away　that　it　covers　a　fleshy　part；　can　not　easily　identify　the　point　of　stimulation。　Such　transpositions　may　be　made　intentionally　in　this　experiment；　but　they　occur　frequently　through　vigorous　twists　of　the　body。　When　the　upper　part　of　the　body　is　drawn　backwards；　while　one　is　sitting　down；　a　collection　of　such　transpositions　occur　and　it　is　very　hard　then　to　localize　a　blow　or　stab。　So；　too；　when　an　arm　is　held　backward　in　such　a　way　as　to　turn　the　flat　of　the　hand　uppermost。　It　is　still　more　difficult　to　locate　a　wound　when　one　part　of　the　body　is　held　by　another　person　and　the　skin　pulled　aside。

2。　The　sensation　of　wetness　is　composed　of　that　of　cold　and　easy　movement　over　surface。　Hence；　when　we　touch　without　warning　a　cold　smooth　piece　of　metal；　we　think　that　we　are　touching　something　wet。　But　the　converse　is　true　for　we　believe　that　we　are　touching　something　cold　and　smooth　when　it　is　only　wet。　Hence　the　numerous　mistakes　about　bleeding　after　wounds。　The　wounded　man　or　his　companions　believe　that　they　have　felt　blood　when　they　have　only　felt　some　smooth　metal；　or　they　have　really　felt　blood　and　have　taken　it　for　something　smooth　and　cold。　Mistakes　about　whether　there　was　blood　or　not　have　led　to　frequent　confusion。

3。　Repetition；　and　hence　summation；　intensifies　and　clarifies　the　　sensation　of　touch。　As　a　consequence；　whenever　we　want　to　test　anything　by　touching　it　we　do　so　repeatedly；　drawing　the　finger　up　and　down　and　holding　the　object　between　the　fingers；　for　the　same　reason　we　repeatedly　feel　objects　with　pleasant　exteriors。　We　like　to　move　our　hands　up　and　down　smooth　or　soft　furry　surfaces；　in　order　to　sense　them　more　clearly；　or　to　make　the　sensation　different　because　of　its　duration　and　continuance。　Hence　it　is　important；　every　time　something　has　to　be　determined　through　touch；　to　ask　whether　the　touch　occurred　once　only　or　was　repeated。　The　relation　is　not　the　same　in　this　case　as　between　a　hasty　glance　and　accurate　survey；　for　in　touching；　essential　differences　may　appear。

4。　It　is　very　difficult　to　determine　merely　by　touch　whether　a　thing　is　straight　or　crooked；　flat；　convex　or　concave。　Weber　has　shown　that　a　glass　plate　drawn　before　the　finger　in　such　wise　as　to　be　held　weakly　at　first；　then　more　powerfully；　then　again　more　powerfully　seems　to　be　convex　and　when　the　reverse　is　done；　concave。　Flatness　is　given　when　the　distance　is　kept　constant。

5。　According　to　Vierordt；＇1＇　the　motion　of　a　point　at　a　constant　rate　over　a　sizable　piece　of　skin；　e。　g。；　the　back　of　the　hand　from　the　wrist　to　the　finger　tips；　gives；　if　not　looked　at；　the　definite　impression　of　increasing　rapidity。　In　the　opposite　direction；　the　definiteness　is　less　but　increases　with　the　extent　of　skin　covered。　This　indicates　that　mistakes　may　be　made　in　such　wounds　as　cuts；　scratches；　etc。


＇1＇　K。　Vierordt：　Der　Zeitsinn　nach　Versuchen。　Tbingen　1868。


6。　The　problem　may　arise　of　the　reliability　of　impressions　of　habitual　pressure。　Weber　made　the　earliest　experiments；　later　verified　by　Fechner；　showing　that　the　sensation　of　weight　differs　a　great　deal　on　different　portions　of　the　skin。　The　most　sensitive　are　the　forehead；　the　temples；　the　eyelids；　the　inside　of　the　forearm。　The　most　insensitive　are　the　lips；　the　trunk　and　the　finger…nails。　If　piles　of　six　silver　dollars　are　laid　on　various　parts　of　the　body；　and　then　removed；　one　at　a　time；　the　differences　are　variously　felt。　In　order　to　notice　a　removal　the　following　number　must　be　taken　away：

One　dollar　from　the　top　of　the　finger；

One　dollar　from　the　sole　of　the　foot；

Two　dollars　from　the　flat　of　the　hand；

Two　dollars　from　the　shoulder　blade；

Three　dollars　from　the　heel；

Four　dollars　from　the　back　of　the　head；

Four　dollars　from　the　breast；　

Five　dollars　from　the　middle　of　the　back；

Five　dollars　from　the　abdomen。

Further　examinations　have　revealed　nothing　new。　Successful　experiments　to　determine　differences　between　men　and　women；　educated　and　uneducated；　in　the　acuteness　of　the　sense　of　pressure；　have　not　been　made。　The　facts　they　involve　may　be　of　use　in　cases　of　assault；　choking；　etc。


Topic　2。　PERCEPTION　AND　CONCEPTION。

Section　44。

What　lawyers　have　to　consider　in　the　transition　from　purely　sensory　impressions　to　intellectual　conceptions　of　these　impressions；　is　the　possibility　of　later　reproducing　any　observed　object　or　event。　Many　so…called　scientific　distinctions　have；　under　the　impulse　of　scientific　psychology；　lost　their　status。　Modern　psychology　does　not　see　sharply…drawn　boundaries　between　perception　and　memory；　and　suggests　that　the　proper　solution　of　the　problem　of　perception　is　the　solution　of　the　problem　of　knowledge。＇1＇


＇1＇　The　first　paragraph；　pp。　78…79；　is　omitted　in　the　translation。


With　regard　to　the　relation　of　consciousness　to　perception　we　will　make　the　distinctions　made　by　Fischer。＇2＇　There　are　two　spheres　or　regions　of　consciousness：　the　region　of　sensation；　and　of　external　perception。　The　former　involves　the　inner　structure　of　the　organism；　the　latter　passes　from　the　organism　into　the　objective　world。　Consciousness　has　a　sphere　of　action　in　which　it　deals　with　the　external　world　by　means　of　the　motor　nerves　and　muscles；　and　a　sphere　of　perception　which　is　the　business　of　the　senses。


＇2＇　E。　L。　Fischer：　Theorie　der　Gesichtswahrnehmung。　Mainz　1891。


External　perception　involves　three　principal　functions：　apprehension；　differentiation；　and　combination。　Perception　in　the　narrower　sense　of　the　term　is　the　simple　sensory　conscious　apprehension　of　some　present　object　stimulating　our　eyes。　We　discover　by　means　of　it　what　the　object　is；　its　relation　to　ourselves　and　other　things；　its　distance　from　us；　its　name；　etc。

What　succeeds　this　apprehension　is　the　most　important　thing　for　us　lawyers；　i。　e。　_*recognition_。　Recognition　indicates　only　that　an　object　has　sufficiently　impressed　a　mind　to　keep　it　known　and　identifiable。　It　is　indifferent　what　the　nature　of　the　recognized　object　is。　According　to　Hume　the　object　may　be　an　enduring　thing　（‘‘non…　　interrupted　and　non…dependent　on　mind''）；　or　it　may　be　identical　with　perception　itself。　In　the　latter　case　the　perception　is　considered　as　a　logical　judgment　like　the　judgment：　‘‘It　is　raining；''　or　the　feeling　that　‘‘it　is　raining；''　and　there　recognition　is　only　the　recognition　of　a　perception。　Now　judgments　of　this　sort　are　what　we　get　from　witnesses；　and　what　we　have　to　examine　and　evaluate。　This　must　be　done　from　two　points　of　view。　First；　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　observer　and　collector　of　instances　who　is　seeking　to　discover　the　principle　which　governs　them。　If　this　is　not　done　the　deductions　that　we　make　are　at　least　unreliable；　and　in　most　cases；　false。　As　Mach　says；　‘‘If　once　observation　has　determined　all　the　facts　of　any　natural　science；　a　new　period　begins　for　that　science；　the　period　of　deduction。''　But　how　often　do　we　lawyers　distinguish　these　two　periods　in　our　own　work。＇1＇


＇1＇　A　sentence　is　here　omitted。


The　second　point　of　importance　is　the　presence　of　mistakes　in　the　observations。　The　essential　mistakes　are　classified　by　Schiel　under　two　headings。　Mistakes　in　observation　are　positive　or　negative；　wrong　observation　or　oversight。　The　latter　occurs　largely　through　preconceived　opinions。　The　opponents　of　Copernicus　concluded　that　the　earth　did　not　move　because　otherwise　a　stone　dropped　from　the　top　of　a　tower　would　reach　the　ground　a　little　to　the　west。　If　the　adherents　of　Copernicus　had　made　the　experiment　th