a discourse on method-第2章

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　and　exhibit　them　as　estimable　far　above　anything　on　earth；　but　they　give　us　no　adequate　criterion　of　virtue；　and　frequently　that　which　they　designate　with　so　fine　a　name　is　but　apathy；　or　pride；　or　despair；　or　parricide。

I　revered　our　theology；　and　aspired　as　much　as　any　one　to　reach　heaven：　but　being　given　assuredly　to　understand　that　the　way　is　not　less　open　to　the　most　ignorant　than　to　the　most　learned；　and　that　the　revealed　truths　which　lead　to　heaven　are　above　our　comprehension；　I　did　not　presume　to　subject　them　to　the　impotency　of　my　reason；　and　I　thought　that　in　order　competently　to　undertake　their　examination；　there　was　need　of　some　special　help　from　heaven；　and　of　being　more　than　man。

Of　philosophy　I　will　say　nothing；　except　that　when　I　saw　that　it　had　been　cultivated　for　many　ages　by　the　most　distinguished　men；　and　that　yet　there　is　not　a　single　matter　within　its　sphere　which　is　not　still　in　dispute；　and　nothing；　therefore；　which　is　above　doubt；　I　did　not　presume　to　anticipate　that　my　success　would　be　greater　in　it　than　that　of　others；　and　further；　when　I　considered　the　number　of　conflicting　opinions　touching　a　single　matter　that　may　be　upheld　by　learned　men；　while　there　can　be　but　one　true；　I　reckoned　as　well…nigh　false　all　that　was　only　probable。

As　to　the　other　sciences；　inasmuch　as　these　borrow　their　principles　from　philosophy；　I　judged　that　no　solid　superstructures　could　be　reared　on　foundations　so　infirm；　and　neither　the　honor　nor　the　gain　held　out　by　them　was　sufficient　to　determine　me　to　their　cultivation：　　for　I　was　not；　thank　Heaven；　in　a　condition　which　compelled　me　to　make　merchandise　of　science　for　the　bettering　of　my　fortune；　and　though　I　might　not　profess　to　scorn　glory　as　a　cynic；　I　yet　made　very　slight　account　of　that　honor　which　I　hoped　to　acquire　only　through　fictitious　titles。　　And；　in　fine；　of　false　sciences　I　thought　I　knew　the　worth　sufficiently　to　escape　being　deceived　by　the　professions　of　an　alchemist；　the　predictions　of　an　astrologer；　the　impostures　of　a　magician；　or　by　the　artifices　and　boasting　of　any　of　those　who　profess　to　know　things　of　which　they　are　ignorant。

For　these　reasons；　as　soon　as　my　age　permitted　me　to　pass　from　under　the　control　of　my　instructors；　I　entirely　abandoned　the　study　of　letters；　and　resolved　no　longer　to　seek　any　other　science　than　the　knowledge　of　myself；　or　of　the　great　book　of　the　world。　　I　spent　the　remainder　of　my　youth　in　traveling；　in　visiting　courts　and　armies；　in　holding　intercourse　with　men　of　different　dispositions　and　ranks；　in　collecting　varied　experience；　in　proving　myself　in　the　different　situations　into　which　fortune　threw　me；　and；　above　all；　in　making　such　reflection　on　the　matter　of　my　experience　as　to　secure　my　improvement。　　For　it　occurred　to　me　that　I　should　find　much　more　truth　in　the　reasonings　of　each　individual　with　reference　to　the　affairs　in　which　he　is　personally　interested；　and　the　issue　of　which　must　presently　punish　him　if　he　has　judged　amiss；　than　in　those　conducted　by　a　man　of　letters　in　his　study；　regarding　speculative　matters　that　are　of　no　practical　moment；　and　followed　by　no　consequences　to　himself；　farther；　perhaps；　than　that　they　foster　his　vanity　the　better　the　more　remote　they　are　from　common　sense；　requiring；　as　they　must　in　this　case；　the　exercise　of　greater　ingenuity　and　art　to　render　them　probable。　　In　addition；　I　had　always　a　most　earnest　desire　to　know　how　to　distinguish　the　true　from　the　false；　in　order　that　I　might　be　able　clearly　to　discriminate　the　right　path　in　life；　and　proceed　in　it　with　confidence。

It　is　true　that；　while　busied　only　in　considering　the　manners　of　other　men；　I　found　here；　too；　scarce　any　ground　for　settled　conviction；　and　remarked　hardly　less　contradiction　among　them　than　in　the　opinions　of　the　philosophers。　　So　that　the　greatest　advantage　I　derived　from　the　study　consisted　in　this；　that；　observing　many　things　which；　however　extravagant　and　ridiculous　to　our　apprehension；　are　yet　by　common　consent　received　and　approved　by　other　great　nations；　I　learned　to　entertain　too　decided　a　belief　in　regard　to　nothing　of　the　truth　of　which　I　had　been　persuaded　merely　by　example　and　custom；　and　thus　I　gradually　extricated　myself　from　many　errors　powerful　enough　to　darken　our　natural　intelligence；　and　incapacitate　us　in　great　measure　from　listening　to　reason。　　But　after　I　had　been　occupied　several　years　in　thus　studying　the　book　of　the　world；　and　in　essaying　to　gather　some　experience；　I　at　length　resolved　to　make　myself　an　object　of　study；　and　to　employ　all　the　powers　of　my　mind　in　choosing　the　paths　I　ought　to　follow；　an　undertaking　which　was　accompanied　with　greater　success　than　it　would　have　been　had　I　never　quitted　my　country　or　my　books。



PART　II

I　was　then　in　Germany；　attracted　thither　by　the　wars　in　that　country；　which　have　not　yet　been　brought　to　a　termination；　and　as　I　was　returning　to　the　army　from　the　coronation　of　the　emperor；　the　setting　in　of　winter　arrested　me　in　a　locality　where；　as　I　found　no　society　to　interest　me；　and　was　besides　fortunately　undisturbed　by　any　cares　or　passions；　I　remained　the　whole　day　in　seclusion；　with　full　opportunity　to　occupy　my　attention　with　my　own　thoughts。　　Of　these　one　of　the　very　first　that　occurred　to　me　was；　that　there　is　seldom　so　much　perfection　in　works　composed　of　many　separate　parts；　upon　which　different　hands　had　been　employed；　as　in　those　completed　by　a　single　master。　　　Thus　it　is　observable　that　the　buildings　which　a　single　architect　has　planned　and　executed；　are　generally　more　elegant　and　commodious　than　those　which　several　have　attempted　to　improve；　by　making　old　walls　serve　for　purposes　for　which　they　were　not　originally　built。　　Thus　also；　those　ancient　cities　which；　from　being　at　first　only　villages；　have　become；　in　course　of　time；　large　towns；　are　usually　but　ill　laid　out　compared　with　the　regularity　constructed　towns　which　a　professional　architect　has　freely　planned　on　an　open　plain；　so　that　although　the　several　buildings　of　the　former　may　often　equal　or　surpass　in　beauty　those　of　the　latter；　yet　when　one　observes　their　indiscriminate　juxtaposition；　there　a　large　one　and　here　a　small；　and　the　consequent　crookedness　and　irregularity　of　the　streets；　one　is　disposed　to　allege　that　chance　rather　than　any　human　will　guided　by　reason　must　have　led　to　such　an　arrangement。　　And　if　we　consider　that　nevertheless　there　have　been　at　all　times　certain　officers　whose　duty　it　was　to　see　that　private　buildings　contributed　to　public　ornament；　the　difficulty　of　reaching　high　perfection　with　but　the　materials　of　others　to　operate　on；　will　be　readily　acknowledged。　　In　the　same　way　I　fancied　that　those　nations　which；　starting　from　a　semi…barbarous　state　and　advancing　to　civilization　by　slow　degrees；　have　had　their　laws　successively　determined；　and；　as　it　were；　forced　upon　them　simply　by　experience　of　the　hurtfulness　of　particular　crimes　and　disputes；　would　by　this　process　come　to　be　possessed　of　less　perfect　institutions　than　those　which；　from　the　commencement　of　their　association　as　communities；　have　followed　the　appointments　of　some　wise　legislator。　　It　is　thus　quite　certain　that　the　constitution　of　the　true　religion；　the　ordinances　of　which　are　derived　from　God；　must　be　incomparably　superior　to　that　of　every　other。　　And；　to　speak　of　human　affairs；　I　believe　that　the　pre…eminence　of　Sparta　was　due　not　to　the　goodness　of　each　of　its　laws　in　particular；　for　many　of　these　were　very　strange；　and　even　opposed　to　good　morals；　but　to　the　circumstance　that；　originated　by　a　single　individual；　they　all　tended　to　a　single　end。　　In　the　same　way　I　thought　that　the　sciences　contained　in　books　（such　of　them　at　least　as　are　made　up　of　probable　reasonings；　without　demonstrations）；　composed　as　they　are　of　the　opinions　of　many　different　individuals　massed　together；　are　farther　removed　from　truth　than　the　simple　inferences　which　a　man　of　good　sense　using　his　natural　and　unprejudiced　judgment　draws　respecting　the　matters　of　his　experience。　　And　because　we　have　all　to　pass　through　a　state　of　infancy　to　manhood；　and　have　been　of　necessity；　for　a　length　of　time；　governed　by　our　desires　and　preceptors　（whose　dictates　were　frequently　conflicting；　while　neither　perhaps　always　counseled　us　for　the　best）；　I　farther　concluded　that　it　is　almost　impossible　that　our　judgments　can　be　so　correct　or　solid　as　they　would　have　been；　had　our　reason　been　mature　from　the　moment　of　our　birth；　and　had　we　always　been　guided　by　it　alone。

It　is　true；　however；　that　it　is　not　customary　to　pull　down　all　the　houses　of　a　town　with　the　single　design　of　rebuilding　them　differently；　and　thereby　rendering　the　streets　more　handsome；　but　it　often　happens　that　a　private　individual　takes　down　his　own　with　the　view　of　erecting　it　anew；　and　that　people　are　even　sometimes　constrained　to　this　when　their　houses　are　in　danger　of　falling　from　age；　or　when　the　foundations　are　insecure。　With　this　before　me　by　way　of　example；　I　was　persuaded　that　it　would　indeed　be　preposterous　for　a　private　individual　to　think　of　reforming　a　state　by　fundamentally　changing　it　throughout；　and　overturning　it　in　order　to　set　it　up　amended；　and　the　same　I　thought　was　true　of　any　similar　project　for　reforming　the　body　of　the　sciences；　or　the　order　of　teaching　them　established　in　the　schools：　　but　as　for　the　opinions　which　up　to　that　time　I　had　embraced；　I　thought　that　I　could　not　do　better　than　resolve　at　once　to　sweep　them　wholly　away；　that　I　might　afterwards　be　in　a　position　to　admit　either　others　more　correct；　or　even　perhaps　the　same　when　they　had　undergone　the　scrutiny　of　reason。　　I　firmly　believed　that　in　this　way　I

should　much　better　succeed　in　the　conduct　of　my　life；　than　if　I　built　only　upon　old　foundations；　and　leaned　upon　principles　which；　in　my　youth；　I　had　taken　upon　trust。　　For　although　I　recognized　various　difficulties　in　this　undertaking；　these　were　not；　however；　without　remedy；　nor　once　to　be　compared　with　such　as　attend　the　slightest　reformation　in　public　affairs。　Large　bodies；　if　once　overthrown；　are　with　great　difficulty　set　up　again；　or　even　kept　erect　when　once　seriously　shaken；　and　the　fall　of　such　is　always　disastrous。　　Then　if　there　are　any　imperfections　in　the　constitutions　of　states　（and　that　many　such　exist　the　diversity　of　constitutions　is　alone　sufficient　to　assure　us）；　custom　has　without　doubt　materially　smoothed　their　inconveniences；　and　has　even　managed　to　steer　altogether　clear　of；　or　insensibly　corrected　a　number　which　sagacity　could　not　have　provided　against　with　equal　effect；　and；　in　fine；　the　defects　are　almost　always　more　tolerable　than　the　change　necessary　for　their　removal；　in　the　same　manner　that　highways　which　wind　among　mountains；　by　being　much　frequented；　become　gradually　so　smooth　and　commodious；　that　it　is　much　better　to　follow　them　than　to　seek　a　straighter　path　by　climbing　over　the　tops　of　rocks　and　descending　to　the　bottoms　of　precipices。

Hence　it　is　that　I　cannot　in　any　degree　approve　of　those　restless　and　busy　meddlers　who；　called　neither　by　birth　nor　fortune　to　take　part　in　the　management　of　public　affairs；　are　yet　always　projecting　reforms；　and　if　I　thought　that　this　tract　contained　aught　which　might　justify　the　suspicion　that　I　was　a　victim　of　such　folly；　I　would　by　no　means　permit　its