washington and his comrades in arms-第17章

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he　same　time　he　said　to　Gates：　〃My　temper　leads　me　to　peace　and　harmony　with　all　men；〃　and　he　deplored　the　internal　strife　which　injured　the　great　cause。　Conway　soon　left　America。　Gates　lived　to　command　another　American　army　and　to　end　his　career　by　a　crowning　disaster。

Washington　had　now　been　for　more　than　two　years　in　the　chief　command　and　knew　his　problems。　It　was　a　British　tradition　that　standing　armies　were　a　menace　to　liberty；　and　the　tradition　had　gained　strength　in　crossing　the　sea。　Washington　would　have　wished　a　national　army　recruited　by　Congress　alone　and　bound　to　serve　for　the　duration　of　the　war。　There　was　much　talk　at　the　time　of　a　〃new　model　army〃　similar　in　type　to　the　wonderful　creation　of　Oliver　Cromwell。　The　Thirteen　Colonies　became；　however；　thirteen　nations。　Each　reserved　the　right　to　raise　its　own　levies　in　its　own　way。　To　induce　men　to　enlist　Congress　was　twice　handicapped。　First；　it　had　no　power　of　taxation　and　could　only　ask　the　States　to　provide　what　it　needed。　The　second　handicap　was　even　greater。　When　Congress　offered　bounties　to　those　who　enlisted　in　the　Continental　army；　some　of　the　States　offered　higher　bounties　for　their　own　levies　of　militia；　and　one　authority　was　bidding　against　the　other。　This　encouraged　short…term　enlistments。　If　a　man　could　re…enlist　and　again　secure　a　bounty；　he　would　gain　more　than　if　he　enlisted　at　once　for　the　duration　of　the　war。

An　army　is　an　intricate　mechanism　needing　the　same　variety　of　agencies　that　is　required　for　the　well…being　of　a　community。　The　chief　aim　is；　of　course；　to　defeat　the　enemy；　and　to　do　this　an　army　must　be　prepared　to　move　rapidly。　Means　of　transport；　so　necessary　in　peace；　are　even　more　urgently　needed　in　war。　Thus　Washington　always　needed　military　engineers　to　construct　roads　and　bridges。　Before　the　Revolution　the　greater　part　of　such　services　had　been　provided　in　America　by　the　regular　British　army；　now　the　enemy。　British　officers　declared　that　the　American　army　was　without　engineers　who　knew　the　science　of　war；　and　certainly　the　forts　on　which　they　spent　their　skill　in　the　North；　those　on　the　lower　Hudson；　and　at　Ticonderoga；　at　the　head　of　Lake　George；　fell　easily　before　the　assailant。　Good　maps　were　needed；　and　in　this　Washington　was　badly　served；　though　the　defect　was　often　corrected　by　his　intimate　knowledge　of　the　country。　Another　service　ill…equipped　was　what　we　should　now　call　the　Red　Cross。　Epidemics；　and　especially　smallpox；　wrought　havoc　in　the　army。　Then；　as　now；　shattered　nerves　were　sometimes　the　result　of　the　strain　of　military　life。　〃The　wind　of　a　ball；〃　what　we　should　now　call　shellshock；　sometimes　killed　men　whose　bodies　appeared　to　be　uninjured。　To　our　more　advanced　knowledge　the　medical　science　of　the　time　seems　crude。　The　physicians　of　New　England；　today　perhaps　the　most　expert　body　of　medical　men　in　the　world；　were　even　then　highly　skillful。　But　the　surgeons　and　nurses　were　too　few。　This　was　true　of　both　sides　in　the　conflict。　Prisoners　in　hospitals　often　suffered　terribly　and　each　side　brought　charges　of　ill…treatment　against　the　other。　The　prison…ships　in　the　harbor　of　New　York；　where　American　prisoners　were　confined；　became　a　scandal；　and　much　bitter　invective　against　British　brutality　is　found　in　the　literature　of　the　period。　The　British　leaders；　no　less　than　Washington　himself；　were　humane　men；　and　ignorance　and　inadequate　equipment　will　explain　most　of　the　hardships；　though　an　occasional　officer　on　either　side　was　undoubtedly　callous　in　respect　to　the　sufferings　of　the　enemy。

Food　and　clothing；　the　first　vital　necessities　of　an　army；　were　often　deplorably　scarce。　In　a　land　of　farmers　there　was　food　enough。　Its　lack　in　the　army　was　chiefly　due　to　bad　transport。　Clothing　was　another　matter。　One　of　the　things　insisted　upon　in　a　well…trained　army　is　a　decent　regard　for　appearance；　and　in　the　eyes　of　the　French　and　the　British　officers　the　American　army　usually　seemed　rather　unkempt。　The　formalities　of　dress；　the　uniformity　of　pipe…clay　and　powdered　hair；　of　polished　steel　and　brass；　can　of　course　be　overdone。　The　British　army　had　too　much　of　it；　but　to　Washington's　force　the　danger　was　of　having　too　little。　It　was　not　easy　to　induce　farmers　and　frontiersmen　who　at　home　began　the　day　without　the　use　of　water；　razor；　or　brush；　to　appear　on　parade　clean；　with　hair　powdered；　faces　shaved；　and　clothes　neat。　In　the　long　summer　days　the　men　were　told　to　shave　before　going　to　bed　that　they　might　prepare　the　more　quickly　for　parade　in　the　morning；　and　to　fill　their　canteens　over　night　if　an　early　march　was　imminent。　Some　of　the　regiments　had　uniforms　which　gave　them　a　sufficiently　smart　appearance。　The　cocked　hat；　the　loose　hunting　shirt　with　its　fringed　border；　the　breeches　of　brown　leather　or　duck；　the　brown　gaiters　or　leggings；　the　powdered　hair；　were　familiar　marks　of　the　soldier　of　the　Revolution。

During　a　great　part　of　the　war；　however；　in　spite　of　supplies　brought　from　both　lance　and　the　West　Indies；　Washington　found　it　difficult　to　secure　for　his　men　even　decent　clothing　of　any　kind；　whether　of　military　cut　or　not。　More　than　a　year　after　he　took　command；　in　the　fighting　about　New　York；　a　great　part　of　his　army　had　no　more　semblance　of　uniform　than　hunting　shirts　on　a　common　pattern。　In　the　following　December；　he　wrote　of　many　men　as　either　shivering　in　garments　fit　only　for　summer　wear　or　as　entirely　naked。　There　was　a　time　in　the　later　campaign　in　the　South　when　hundreds　of　American　soldiers　marched　stark　naked；　except　for　breech　cloths。　One　of　the　most　pathetic　hardships　of　the　soldier's　life　was　due　to　the　lack　of　boots。　More　than　one　of　Washington's　armies　could　be　tracked　by　the　bloody　footprints　of　his　barefooted　men。　Near　the　end　of　the　war　Benedict　Arnold；　who　knew　whereof　he　spoke；　described　the　American　army　as　〃illy　clad；　badly　fed；　and　worse　paid；〃　pay　being　then　two　or　three　years　overdue。　On　the　other　hand；　there　is　evidence　that　life　in　the　army　was　not　without　its　compensations。　Enforced　dwelling　in　the　open　air　saved　men　from　diseases　such　as　consumption　and　the　movement　from　camp　to　camp　gave　a　broader　outlook　to　the　farmer's　sons。　The　army　could　usually　make　a　brave　parade。　On　ceremonial　occasions　the　long　hair　of　the　men　would　be　tied　back　and　made　white　with　powder；　even　though　their　uniforms　were　little　more　than　rags。

The　men　carried　weapons　some　of　which；　in；　at　any　rate；　the　early　days　of　the　war；　were　made　by　hand　at　the　village　smithy。　A　man　might　take　to　the　war　a　weapon　forged　by　himself。　The　American　soldier　had　this　advantage　over　the　British　soldier；　that　he　used；　if　not　generally；　at　least　in　some　cases；　not　the　smooth…bore　musket　but　the　grooved　rifle　by　which　the　ball　was　made　to　rotate　in　its　flight。　The　fire　from　this　rifle　was　extremely　accurate。　At　first　weapons　were　few　and　ammunition　was　scanty；　but　in　time　there　were　importations　from　France　and　also　supplies　from　American　gun　factories。　The　standard　length　of　the　barrel　was　three　and　a　half　feet；　a　portentous　size　compared　with　that　of　the　modern　weapon。　The　loading　was　from　the　muzzle；　a　process　so　slow　that　one　of　the　favorite　tactics　of　the　time　was　to　await　the　fire　of　the　enemy　and　then　charge　quickly　and　bayonet　him　before　he　could　reload。　The　old　method　of　firing　off　the　musket　by　means　of　slow　matches　kept　alight　during　action　was　now　obsolete；　the　latest　device　was　the　flintlock。　But　there　was　always　a　measure　of　doubt　whether　the　weapon　would　go　off。　Partly　on　this　account　Benjamin　Franklin；　the　wisest　man　of　his　time；　declared　for　the　use　of　the　pike　of　an　earlier　age　rather　than　the　bayonet　and　for　bows　and　arrows　instead　of　firearms。　A　soldier；　he　said；　could　shoot　four　arrows　to　one　bullet。　An　arrow　wound　was　more　disabling　than　a　bullet　wound；　and　arrows　did　not　becloud　the　vision　with　smoke。　The　bullet　remained；　however；　the　chief　means　of　destruction；　and　the　fire　of　Washington's　soldiers　usually　excelled　that　of　the　British。　These；　in　their　turn；　were　superior　in　the　use　of　the　bayonet。

Powder　and　lead　were　hard　to　get。　The　inventive　spirit　of　America　was　busy　with　plans　to　procure　saltpeter　and　other　ingredients　for　making　powder；　but　it　remained　scarce。　Since　there　was　no　standard　firearm；　each　soldier　required　bullets　specially　suited　to　his　weapon。　The　men　melted　lead　and　cast　it　in　their　own　bullet…molds。　It　is　an　instance　of　the　minor　ironies　of　war　that　the　great　equestrian　statue　of　George　III；　which　had　been　erected　in　New　York　in　days　more　peaceful；　was　melted　into　bullets　for　killing　that　monarch's　soldiers。　Another　necessity　was　paper　for　cartridges　and　wads。　The　cartridge　of　that　day　was　a　paper　envelope　containing　the　charge　of　ball　and　powder。　This　served　also　as　a　wad；　after　being　emptied　of　its　contents；　and　was　pushed　home　with　a　ramrod。　A　store　of　German　Bibles　in　Pennsylvania　fell　into　the　hands　of　the　soldiers　at　a　moment　when　paper　was　a　crying　need；　and　the　pages　of　these　Bibles　were　used　for　wads。

The　artillery　of　the　time　seems　feeble　compared　with　the　monster　weapons　of　death　which　we　know　in　our　own　age。　Yet　it　was　an　important　factor　in　the　war。　It　is　probable　that　before　the　war　not　a　single　cannon　had　been　made　in　the　colonies。　From　the　outset　Washington　was　hampered　for　lack　of　artillery。　Neutrals；　especially　the　Dutch　in　the　West　Indies；　sold　guns　to　the　Americans；　and　France　was　a　chief　source　of　supply　during　long　periods　when　the　British　lost　the　command　of　the　sea。　There　was　always　difficulty　about　equipping　cavalry；　especially　in　the　North。　The　Virginian　was　at　home　on　horseback；　and　in　the　farther　South　bands　of　cavalry　did　service　during　the　later　years　of　the　war；　but　many　of　the　fighting　riders　of　today　might　tomorrow　be　guiding　their　horses　peacefully　behind　the　plough。

The　pay　of　the　soldiers　remained　to　Washington　a　baffling　problem。　When　the　war　ended　their　pay　was　still　heavily　in　arrears。　The　States　were　timid　about　imposing　taxation　and　few　if　any　paid　promptly　the　levies　made　upon　them。　Congress　bridged　the　chasm　in　finance　by　issuing　paper　money　which　so　declined　in　value　that；　as　Washington　said　grimly；　it　required　a　wagon…load　of　money　to　pay　for　a　wagon…load　of　supplies。　The　soldier　received　his　pay　in　this　money　at　its　face　value；　and　there　is　little　wonder　that　the　〃continental　dollar〃　is　still　in　the　United　States　a　symbol　of　worthlessness。　At　times　the　lack　of　pay　caused　mutiny　which　would　have　been　dangerous　but　for　Washington's　firm　and　tactful　management　in　the　time　of　crisis。　There　was　in　him　both　the　kindly　feeling　of　the　humane　man　and　the　rigor　of　the　army　leader。　He　sent　men　to　death　without　flinching；　but　he　was　at　one　with　his　men　in　their　sufferings；　and　no　problem　gave　him　greater　anxiety　than　that　of　pay；　affecting；　as　it　did；　the　health　and　spirits　of　men　who；　while　unpaid；　had　no　means　of　softening　the　daily　tale　of　hardship。

Desertion　was　always　hard　to　combat。　With　the　homesickness　which　led　sometimes　to　desertion　Washington　must　have　had　a　secret　sympathy；　for　his　letters　show　that　he　always　longed　for　that　pleasant　home　in　Virginia　which　he　did　not　allow　himself　to　revisit　until　nearly　the　end　of　the　war。　The　land　of　a　farmer　on　service　often　remained　untilled；　and　there　are　pathetic　cases　of　families　in　bitter　need　because　the