science of logic-第7章

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distinguishing　marks　of　truth；　on　the　contrary；　the　necessary　forms　and　self…consciousness　of
thought　are　the　content　and　the　ultimate　truth　itself。

To　get　some　idea　of　this　one　must　discard　the　prejudice　that　truth　must　be　something　tangible。
Such　tangibility　is；　for　example；　imported　even　into　the　Platonic　Ideas　which　are　in　God's　thinking；
as　if　they　are；　as　it　were；　existing　things　but　in　another　world　or　region；　while　the　world　of　actuality
exists　outside　that　region　and　has　a　substantial　existence　distinct　from　those　Ideas　and　only　through
this　distinction　is　a　substantial　reality。　The　Platonic　Idea　is　the　universal；　or　more　definitely　the
Notion　of　an　object；　only　in　its　Notion　does　something　possess　actuality　and　to　the　extent　that　it　is
distinct　from　its　Notion　it　ceases　to　be　actual　and　is　a　non…entity；　the　side　of　tangibility　and
sensuous　self…externality　belongs　to　this　null　aspect。　But　on　the　other　side；　one　can　appeal　to　the
conceptions　of　ordinary　logic　itself；　for　it　is　assumed；　for　example；　that　the　determinations
contained　in　definitions　do　not　belong　only　to　the　knower；　but　are　determinations　of　the　object；
constituting　its　innermost　essence　and　its　very　own　nature。　Or；　if　from　given　determinations　others
are　inferred；　it　is　assumed　that　what　is　inferred　is　not　something　external　and　alien　to　the　object；　but
rather　that　it　belongs　to　the　object　itself；　that　to　the　thought　there　is　a　correspondent　being。

It　is　implied　generally　in　the　use　of　forms　of　the　Notion；　of　judgement；　syllogism；　definition；
division；　etc。；　that　they　are　not　merely　forms　of　self…conscious　thinking　but　also　of　the　objective
understanding。　

Thought　is　an　expression　which　attributes　the　determination　contained　therein　primarily　to
consciousness。　But　inasmuch　as　it　is　said　that　understanding；　reason；　is　in　the　objective　world；　that
mind　and　nature　have　universal　laws　to　which　their　life　and　changes　conform；　then　it　is　conceded
that　the　determinations　of　thought　equally　have　objective　value　and　existence。

The　critical　philosophy　had；　it　is　true；　already　turned　metaphysics　into　logic　but　it；　like　the　later
idealism；　as　previously　remarked；　was　overawed　by　the　object；　and　so　the　logical　determinations
were　given　an　essentially　subjective　significance　with　the　result　that　these　philosophies　remained
burdened　with　the　object　they　had　avoided　and　were　left　with　the　residue　of　a　thing…in…itself；　an
infinite　obstacle；　as　a　beyond。　But　the　liberation　from　the　opposition　of　consciousness　which　the
science　of　logic　must　be　able　to　presuppose　lifts　the　determinations　of　thought　above　this　timid；
incomplete　standpoint　and　demands　that　they　be　considered　not　with　any　such　limitation　and
reference　but　as　they　are　in　their　own　proper　character；　as　logic；　as　pure　reason。

Kant　moreover　considers　logic；　that　is；　the　aggregate　of　definitions　and　propositions　which
ordinarily　passes　for　logic；　to　be　fortunate　in　having　attained　so　early　to　completion　before　the
other　sciences；　since　Aristotle；　it　has　not　lost　any　ground；　but　neither　has　it　gained　any；　the　latter
because　to　all　appearances　it　seems　to　be　finished　and　complete。　Now　if　logic　has　not　undergone
any　change　since　Aristotle　—　and　in　fact；　judging　by　modern　compendiums　of　logic　the　changes
frequently　consist　mainly　in　omissions　—　then　surely　the　conclusion　which　should　be　drawn　is　that　it
is　all　the　more　in　need　of　a　total　reconstruction；　for　spirit；　after　its　labours　over　two　thousand　years；
must　have　attained　to　a　higher　consciousness　about　its　thinking　and　about　its　own　pure；　essential
nature。

A　comparison　of　the　forms　to　which　spirit　has　raised　itself　in　the　practical　and　religious　sphere　and
in　every　branch　of　science　both　physical　and　mental；　with　the　form　presented　by　logic　which　is
spirit's　consciousness　of　its　own　pure　essence；　reveals　so　vast　a　difference　that　the　utter
inadequacy　and　unworthiness　of　the　latter　consciousness　in　comparison　with　the　higher
consciousness　displayed　in　those　other　spheres　cannot　fail　to　strike　the　most　superficial　observer。

In　point　of　fact　the　need　for　a　reconstruction　of　logic　has　long　since　been　felt。　In　form　and　in
content；　logic；　as　exhibited　in　the　text…books；　may　be　said　to　have　fallen　into　contempt。　It　is　still
dragged　in；　but　more　from　a　feeling　that　one　cannot　dispense　with　logic　altogether　and　because　the
tradition　of　its　importance　still　survives；　rather　than　from　a　conviction　that　such　commonplace
content　and　occupation　with　such　empty　forms　is　valuable　and　useful。

The　additions　of　psychological；　pedagogic　and　even　physiological　material　which　logic　received　in
the　past　have　subsequently　been　recognised　almost　universally　as　disfigurements。　A　great　part　of
these　psychological；　pedagogic　and　physiological　observations；　laws　and　rules；　whether　they　occur
in　logic　or　anywhere　else；　must　appear　very　shallow　and　trivial　in　themselves；　and　without
exception　all　those　rules　such　as；　for　example；　that　one　must　think　out　and　test　what　one　reads　in
books　or　hears　by　word　of　mouth；　that　when　one's　sight　is　not　good　one　should　help　one's　eyes　by
wearing　spectacles　—　rules　which　in　textbooks　of　so…called　applied　logic　were　solemnly　set　out　in
paragraphs　and　put　forward　as　aids　to　the　attainment　of　truth　—　these　must　strike　everyone　as
superfluous　—　except　only　the　writer　or　teacher　who　finds　difficulty　in　expanding　by　some　means
or　other　the　otherwise　scanty　and　life…less　content　of　logic。'

Regarding　this　content；　the　reason　why　logic　is　so　dull　and　spiritless　has　already　been　given　above。
Its　determinations　are　accepted　in　their　unmoved　fixity　and　are　brought　only　into　external　relation
with　each　other。　In　judgments　and　syllogisms　the　operations　are　in　the　main　reduced　to　and
founded　on　the　quantitative　aspect　of　the　determinations；　consequently　everything　rests　on　an
external　difference；　on　mere　comparison　and　becomes　a　completely　analytical　procedure　and
mechanical　calculation。　The　deduction　of　the　so…called　rules　and　laws；　chiefly　of　inference；　is　not
much　better　than　a　manipulation　of　rods　of　unequal　length　in　order　to　sort　and　group　them
according　to　size　—　than　a　childish　game　of　fitting　together　the　pieces　of　a　coloured　picture　puzzle。

Consequently；　this　thinking　has　been　equated；　not　incorrectly；　with　reckoning；　and　reckoning　again
with　this　thinking。　In　arithmetic；　numbers　are　regarded　as　devoid　of　any　concrete　conceptual
content；　so　apart　from　their　wholly　external　relationship　they　have　no　meaning；　and　neither　in
themselves　nor　in　their　interrelationships　are　thoughts。　When　it　is　calculated　in　mechanical　fashion
that　three…fourths　multiplied　by　two…thirds　makes　one…half；　this　operation　contains　about　as　much
and　as　little　thought　as　calculating　whether　in　a　logical　figure　this　or　that　kind　of　syllogism　is　valid。

Before　these　dead　bones　of　logic　can　be　quickened　by　spirit；　and　so　become　possessed　of　a
substantial；　significant　content；　its　method　must　be　that　which　alone　can　enable　it　to　be　pure
science。　In　the　present　state　of　logic　one　can　scarcely　recognise　even　a　trace　of　scientific　method。
It　has　roughly　the　form　of　an　empirical　science。　The　empirical　sciences　have　found　for　their　own
appropriate　purposes　their　own　peculiar　method；　such　as　it　is；　of　defining　and　classifying　their
material。　Pure　mathematics；　too；　has　its　method　which　is　appropriate　for　its　abstract　objects　and
for　the　quantitative　form　in　which　alone　it　considers　them。　I　have　said　what　is　essential　in　the
preface　to　the　Phenomenology　of　Spirit　about　this　method　and；　in　general；　the　subordinate　form
of　scientific　method　which　can　be　employed　in　mathematics；　but　it　will　also　be　considered　in　more
detail　in　the　logic　itself。　Spinoza；　Wolff　and　others　have　let　themselves　be　misled　in　applying　it　also
to　philosophy　and　in　making　the　external　course　followed　by　Notion…less　quantity；　the　course　of
the　Notion；　a　procedure　which　is　absolutely　contradictory。

Hitherto　philosophy　had　not　found　its　method；　it　regarded　with　envy　the　systematic　structure　of
mathematics；　and；　as　we　have　said；　borrowed　it　or　had　recourse　to　the　method　of　sciences　which
are　only　amalgams　of　given　material；　empirical　propositions　and　thoughts　—　or　even　resorted　to
crude　rejection　of　all　method。　
However；　the　exposition　of　what　alone　can　be　the　true　method　of　philosophical　science　falls　within
the　treatment　of　logic　itself；　for　the　method　is　the　consciousness　of　the　form　of　the　inner
self…movement　of　the　content　of　logic。

In　the　Phenomenology　of　Mind　I　have　expounded　an　example　of　this　method　in　application　to　a
more　concrete　object；　namely　to　consciousness。　Here　we　are　dealing　with　forms　of　consciousness
each　of　which　in　realising　itself　at　the　same　time　resolves　itself；　has　for　its　result　its　own　negation　—
and　so　passes　into　a　higher　form　。　All　that　is　necessary　to　achieve　scientific　progress　—　and　it　is
essential　to　strive　to　gain　this　quite　simple　insight　—　is　the　recognition　of　the　logical　principle　that
the　negative　is　just　as　much　positive；　or　that　what　is　self…contradictory　does　not　resolve　itself　into　a
nullity；　into　abstract　nothingness；　but　essentially　only　into　the　negation　of　its　particular　content；　in
other　words；　that　such　a　negation　is　not　all　and　every　negation　but　the　negation　of　a　specific
subject　matter　which　resolves　itself；　and　consequently　is　a　specific　negation；　and　therefore　the
result　essentially　contains　that　from　which　it　results；　which　strictly　speaking　is　a　tautology；　for
otherwise　it　would　be　an　immediacy；　not　a　result。　Because　the　result；　the　negation；　is　a　specific
negation；　it　has　content。　It　is　a　fresh　Notion　but　higher　and　richer　than　its　predecessor；　for　it　is
richer　by　the　negation　or　opposite　of　the　latter；　therefore　contains　it；　but　also　something　more；　and
is　the　unity　of　itself　and　its　opposite。　It　is　in　this　way　that　the　system　of　Notions　as　such　has　to　be
formed　—　and　has　to　complete　itself　in　a　purely　continuous　course　in　which　nothing　extraneous　is
introduced。

I　could　not　pretend　that　the　method　which　I　follow　in　this　system　of　logic　—　or　rather　which　this
system　in　its　own　self　follows　—　is　not　capable　of　greater　completeness；　of　much　elaboration　in
detail；　but　at　the　same　time　I　know　that　it　is　the　only　true　method。　This　is　self…evident　simply　from
the　fact　that　it　is　not　something　distinct　from　its　object　and　content；　for　it　is　the　inwardness　of　the
content；　the　dialectic　which　it　possesses　within　itself；　which　is　the　mainspring　of　its　advance。　It　is
clear　that　no　expositions　can　be　accepted　as　scientifically　valid　which　do　not　pursue　the　course　of
this　method　and　do　not　conform　to　its　simple　rhythm；　for　this　is　the　course　of　the　subject　matter
itself。

In　conformity　with　this　method；　I　would　point　out　that　the　divisions　and　headings　of　the　books；
sections　and　chapters　given　in　this　work　as　well　as　the　explanations　associated　with　them；　are
made　to　facilitate　a　preliminary　survey　and　strictly　are　only　of　historical　value。　They　do　not　belong
to　the　content　and　body　of　the　science　but　are　compilations　of　an　external　reflection　which　has
already　run　through　the　whole　of　the　exposition　and　consequently　knows　and　indicates　in　advance
t