on liberty-第17章

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abroad；　for　the　exercise　of　which　there　is　no　more　inviting　field　than



the　moral　and　prudential　improvement　of　our　fellow　creatures。　These



tendencies　of　the　times　cause　the　public　to　be　more　disposed　than　at



most　former　periods　to　prescribe　general　rules　of　conduct；　and



endeavour　to　make　every　one　conform　to　the　approved　standard。　And　that



standard；　express　or　tacit；　is　to　desire　nothing　strongly。　Its　ideal



of　character　is　to　be　without　any　marked　character；　to　maim　by



compression；　like　a　Chinese　lady's　foot；　every　part　of　human　nature



which　stands　out　prominently；　and　tends　to　make　the　person　markedly



dissimilar　in　outline　to　commonplace　humanity。



　　As　is　usually　the　case　with　ideals　which　exclude　one…half　of　what　is



desirable；　the　present　standard　of　approbation　produces　only　an



inferior　imitation　of　the　other　half。　Instead　of　great　energies　guided



by　vigorous　reason；　and　strong　feelings　strongly　controlled　by　a



conscientious　will；　its　result　is　weak　feelings　and　weak　energies；



which　therefore　can　be　kept　in　outward　conformity　to　rule　without



any　strength　either　of　will　or　of　reason。　Already　energetic　characters



on　any　large　scale　are　becoming　merely　traditional。　There　is　now



scarcely　any　outlet　for　energy　in　this　country　except　business。　The



energy　expended　in　this　may　still　be　regarded　as　considerable。　What



little　is　left　from　that　employment　is　expended　on　some　hobby；　which



may　be　a　useful；　even　a　philanthropic　hobby；　but　is　always　some　one



thing；　and　generally　a　thing　of　small　dimensions。　The　greatness　of



England　is　now　all　collective；　individually　small；　we　only　appear



capable　of　anything　great　by　our　habit　of　combining；　and　with　this　our



moral　and　religious　philanthropists　are　perfectly　contented。　But　it



was　men　of　another　stamp　than　this　that　made　England　what　it　has　been；



and　men　of　another　stamp　will　be　needed　to　prevent　its　decline。



　　The　despotism　of　custom　is　everywhere　the　standing　hindrance　to



human　advancement；　being　in　unceasing　antagonism　to　that　disposition



to　aim　at　something　better　than　customary；　which　is　called；



according　to　circumstances；　the　spirit　of　liberty；　or　that　of　progress



or　improvement。　The　spirit　of　improvement　is　not　always　a　spirit　of



liberty；　for　it　may　aim　at　forcing　improvements　on　an　unwilling



people；　and　the　spirit　of　liberty；　in　so　far　as　it　resists　such



attempts；　may　ally　itself　locally　and　temporarily　with　the　opponents



of　improvement；　but　the　only　unfailing　and　permanent　source　of



improvement　is　liberty；　since　by　it　there　are　as　many　possible



independent　centres　of　improvement　as　there　are　individuals。　The



progressive　principle；　however；　in　either　shape；　whether　as　the　love



of　liberty　or　of　improvement；　is　antagonistic　to　the　sway　of　Custom；



involving　at　least　emancipation　from　that　yoke；　and　the　contest



between　the　two　constitutes　the　chief　interest　of　the　history　of



mankind。　The　greater　part　of　the　world　has；　properly　speaking；　no



history；　because　the　despotism　of　Custom　is　complete。　This　is　the　case



over　the　whole　East。　Custom　is　there；　in　all　things；　the　final　appeal；



justice　and　right　mean　conformity　to　custom；　the　argument　of　custom　no



one；　unless　tyrant　intoxicated　with　power；　thinks　of　resisting。　And　we



see　the　result。　Those　nations　must　once　have　had　originality；　they　did



not　start　out　of　the　ground　populous；　lettered；　and　versed　in　many



of　the　arts　of　life；　they　made　themselves　all　this；　and　were　then



the　greatest　and　most　powerful　nations　of　the　world。　What　are　they



now？　The　subjects　or　dependents　of　tribes　whose　forefathers　wandered



in　the　forests　when　theirs　had　magnificent　palaces　and　gorgeous



temples；　but　over　whom　custom　exercised　only　a　divided　rule　with



liberty　and　progress。



　　A　people；　it　appears；　may　be　progressive　for　a　certain　length　of



time；　and　then　stop：　when　does　it　stop？　When　it　ceases　to　possess



individuality。　If　a　similar　change　should　befall　the　nations　of



Europe；　it　will　not　be　in　exactly　the　same　shape：　the　despotism　of



custom　with　which　these　nations　are　threatened　is　not　precisely



stationariness。　It　proscribes　singularity；　but　it　does　not　preclude



change；　provided　all　change　together。　We　have　discarded　the　fixed



costumes　of　our　forefathers；　every　one　must　still　dress　like　other



people；　but　the　fashion　may　change　once　or　twice　a　year。　We　thus



take　care　that　when　there　is　a　change；　it　shall　be　for　change's



sake；　and　not　from　any　idea　of　beauty　or　convenience；　for　the　same



idea　of　beauty　or　convenience　would　not　strike　all　the　world　at　the



same　moment；　and　be　simultaneously　thrown　aside　by　all　at　another



moment。　But　we　are　progressive　as　well　as　changeable：　we　continually



make　new　inventions　in　mechanical　things；　and　keep　them　until　they　are



again　superseded　by　better；　we　are　eager　for　improvement　in



politics；　in　education；　even　in　morals；　though　in　this　last　our　idea



of　improvement　chiefly　consists　in　persuading　or　forcing　other



people　to　be　as　good　as　ourselves。　It　is　not　progress　that　we　object



to；　on　the　contrary；　we　flatter　ourselves　that　we　are　the　most



progressive　people　who　ever　lived。　It　is　individuality　that　we　war



against：　we　should　think　we　had　done　wonders　if　we　had　made



ourselves　all　alike；　forgetting　that　the　unlikeness　of　one　person　to



another　is　generally　the　first　thing　which　draws　the　attention　of



either　to　the　imperfection　of　his　own　type；　and　the　superiority　of



another；　or　the　possibility；　by　combining　the　advantages　of　both；　of



producing　something　better　than　either。　We　have　a　warning　example　in



China…　a　nation　of　much　talent；　and；　in　some　respects；　even　wisdom；



owing　to　the　rare　good　fortune　of　having　been　provided　at　an　early



period　with　a　particularly　good　set　of　customs；　the　work；　in　some



measure；　of　men　to　whom　even　the　most　enlightened　European　must



accord；　under　certain　limitations；　the　title　of　sages　and



philosophers。　They　are　remarkable；　too；　in　the　excellence　of　their



apparatus　for　impressing；　as　far　as　possible；　the　best　wisdom　they



possess　upon　every　mind　in　the　community；　and　securing　that　those



who　have　appropriated　most　of　it　shall　occupy　the　posts　of　honour



and　power。　Surely　the　people　who　did　this　have　discovered　the　secret



of　human　progressiveness；　and　must　have　kept　themselves　steadily　at



the　head　of　the　movement　of　the　world。　On　the　contrary；　they　have



become　stationary…　have　remained　so　for　thousands　of　years；　and　if



they　are　ever　to　be　farther　improved；　it　must　be　by　foreigners。　They



have　succeeded　beyond　all　hope　in　what　English　philanthropists　are　so



industriously　working　at…　in　making　a　people　all　alike；　all　governing



their　thoughts　and　conduct　by　the　same　maxims　and　rules；　and　these　are



the　fruits。　The　modern　regime　of　public　opinion　is；　in　an



unorganised　form；　what　the　Chinese　educational　and　political　systems



are　in　an　organised；　and　unless　individuality　shall　be　able



successfully　to　assert　itself　against　this　yoke；　Europe；



notwithstanding　its　noble　antecedents　and　its　professed



Christianity；　will　tend　to　become　another　China。



　　What　is　it　that　has　hitherto　preserved　Europe　from　this　lot？　What



has　made　the　European　family　of　nations　an　improving；　instead　of　a



stationary　portion　of　mankind？　Not　any　superior　excellence　in　them；



which；　when　it　exists；　exists　as　the　effect　not　as　the　cause；　but



their　remarkable　diversity　of　character　and　culture。　Individuals；



classes；　nations；　have　been　extremely　unlike　one　another：　they　have



struck　out　a　great　variety　of　paths；　each　leading　to　something



valuable；　and　although　at　every　period　those　who　travelled　in



different　paths　have　been　intolerant　of　one　another；　and　each　would



have　thought　it　an　excellent　thing　if　all　the　rest　could　have　been



compelled　to　travel　his　road；　their　attempts　to　thwart　each　other's



development　have　rarely　had　any　permanent　success；　and　each　has　in



time　endured　to　receive　the　good　which　the　others　have　offered。　Europe



is；　in　my　judgment；　wholly　indebted　to　this　plurality　of　paths　for　its



progressive　and　many…sided　development。　But　it　already　begins　to



possess　this　benefit　in　a　considerably　less　degree。　It　is　decidedly



advancing　towards　the　Chinese　ideal　of　making　all　people　alike。　M。



de　Tocqueville；　in　his　last　important　work；　remarks　how　much　more



the　Frenchmen　of　the　present　day　resemble　one　another　than　did　those



even　of　the　last　generation。　The　same　remark　might　be　made　of



Englishmen　in　a　far　greater　degree。



　　In　a　passage　already　quoted　from　Wilhelm　von　Humboldt；　he　points　out



two　things　as　necessary　conditions　of　human　development；　because



necessary　to　render　people　unlike　one　another；　namely；　freedom；　and



variety　of　situations。　The　second　of　these　two　conditions　is　in　this



country　every　day　diminishing。　The　circumstances　which　surround



different　classes　and　individuals；　and　shape　their　characters；　are



daily　becoming　more　assimilated。　Formerly　different　ranks；　different



neighbourhoods；　different　trades　and　professions；　lived　in　what



might　be　called　different　worlds；　at　present　to　a　great　degree　in



the　same。　Comparatively　speaking；　they　now　read　the　same　things；



listen　to　the　same　things；　see　the　same　things；　go　to　the　same　places；



have　their　hopes　and　fears　directed　to　the　same　objects；　have　the　same



rights　and　liberties；　and　the　same　means　of　asserting　them。　Great　as



are　the　differences　of　position　which　remain；　they　are　nothing　to



those　which　have　ceased。　And　the　assimilation　is　still　proceeding。　All



the　political　changes　of　the　age　promote　it；　since　they　all　tend　to



raise　the　low　and　to　lower　the　high。　Every　extension　of　education



promotes　it；　because　education　brings　people　under　common



influences；　and　gives　them　access　to　the　general　stock　of　facts　and



sentiments。　Improvement　in　the　means　of　communication　promotes　it；



by　bringing　the　inhabitants　of　distant　places　into　personal　contact；



and　keeping　up　a　rapid　flow　of　changes　of　residence　between　one



place　and　another。　The　increase　of　commerce　and　manufactures



promotes　it；　by　diffusing　more　widely　the　advantages　of　easy



circumstances；　and　opening　all　objects　of　ambition；　even　the



highest；　to　general　competition；　whereby　the　desire　of　rising



becomes　no　longer　the　character　of　a　particular　class；　but　of　all



classes。　A　more　powerful　agency　than　even　all　these；　in　bringing　about



a　general　similarity　among　mankind；　is　the　complete　establishment；



in　this　and　other　free　countries；　of　the　ascendancy　of　public



opinion　in　the　State。　As　the　various　social　eminences　which　enabled



persons　entrenched　on　them　to　disregard　the　opinion　of　the　multitude



gradually　become　levelled；　as　the　very　idea　of　resisting　the　will　of



the　public