on liberty-第12章

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of　fair　play　to　all　sides　of　the　truth。　When　there　are　persons　to　be



found　who　form　an　exception　to　the　apparent　unanimity　of　the　world



on　any　subject；　even　if　the　world　is　in　the　right；　it　is　always



probable　that　dissentients　have　something　worth　hearing　to　say　for



themselves；　and　that　truth　would　lose　something　by　their　silence。



　　It　may　be　objected；　〃But　some　received　principles；　especially　on　the



highest　and　most　vital　subjects；　are　more　than　half…truths。　The



Christian　morality；　for　instance；　is　the　whole　truth　on　that



subject；　and　if　any　one　teaches　a　morality　which　varies　from　it；　he　is



wholly　in　error。〃　As　this　is　of　all　cases　the　most　important　in



practice；　none　can　be　fitter　to　test　the　general　maxim。　But　before



pronouncing　what　Christian　morality　is　or　is　not；　it　would　be



desirable　to　decide　what　is　meant　by　Christian　morality。　If　it　means



the　morality　of　the　New　Testament；　I　wonder　that　any　one　who　derives



his　knowledge　of　this　from　the　book　itself；　can　suppose　that　it　was



announced；　or　intended；　as　a　complete　doctrine　of　morals。　The　Gospel



always　refers　to　a　pre…existing　morality；　and　confines　its　precepts　to



the　particulars　in　which　that　morality　was　to　be　corrected；　or



superseded　by　a　wider　and　higher；　expressing　itself；　moreover；　in



terms　most　general；　often　impossible　to　be　interpreted　literally；



and　possessing　rather　the　impressiveness　of　poetry　or　eloquence　than



the　precision　of　legislation。　To　extract　from　it　a　body　of　ethical



doctrine；　has　never　been　possible　without　eking　it　out　from　the　Old



Testament；　that　is；　from　a　system　elaborate　indeed；　but　in　many



respects　barbarous；　and　intended　only　for　a　barbarous　people。　St。



Paul；　a　declared　enemy　to　this　Judaical　mode　of　interpreting　the



doctrine　and　filling　up　the　scheme　of　his　Master；　equally　assumes　a



preexisting　morality；　namely　that　of　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　and　his



advice　to　Christians　is　in　a　great　measure　a　system　of　accommodation



to　that；　even　to　the　extent　of　giving　an　apparent　sanction　to　slavery。



What　is　called　Christian；　but　should　rather　be　termed　theological；



morality；　was　not　the　work　of　Christ　or　the　Apostles；　but　is　of　much



later　origin；　having　been　gradually　built　up　by　the　Catholic　church　of



the　first　five　centuries；　and　though　not　implicitly　adopted　by　moderns



and　Protestants；　has　been　much　less　modified　by　them　than　might　have



been　expected。　For　the　most　part；　indeed；　they　have　contented



themselves　with　cutting　off　the　additions　which　had　been　made　to　it　in



the　Middle　Ages；　each　sect　supplying　the　place　by　fresh　additions；



adapted　to　its　own　character　and　tendencies。



　　That　mankind　owe　a　great　debt　to　this　morality；　and　to　its　early



teachers；　I　should　be　the　last　person　to　deny；　but　I　do　not　scruple　to



say　of　it　that　it　is；　in　many　important　points；　incomplete　and



one…sided；　and　that　unless　ideas　and　feelings；　not　sanctioned　by　it；



had　contributed　to　the　formation　of　European　life　and　character；　human



affairs　would　have　been　in　a　worse　condition　than　they　now　are。



Christian　morality　（so　called）　has　all　the　characters　of　a　reaction；



it　is；　in　great　part；　a　protest　against　Paganism。　Its　ideal　is



negative　rather　than　positive；　passive　rather　than　active；　Innocence



rather　than　Nobleness；　Abstinence　from　Evil；　rather　than　energetic



Pursuit　of　Good；　in　its　precepts　（as　has　been　well　said）　〃thou　shalt



not〃　predominates　unduly　over　〃thou　shalt。〃　In　its　horror　of



sensuality；　it　made　an　idol　of　asceticism；　which　has　been　gradually



compromised　away　into　one　of　legality。　It　holds　out　the　hope　of　heaven



and　the　threat　of　hell；　as　the　appointed　and　appropriate　motives　to



a　virtuous　life：　in　this　falling　far　below　the　best　of　the　ancients；



and　doing　what　lies　in　it　to　give　to　human　morality　an　essentially



selfish　character；　by　disconnecting　each　man's　feelings　of　duty　from



the　interests　of　his　fellow　creatures；　except　so　far　as　a



self…interested　inducement　is　offered　to　him　for　consulting　them。　It



is　essentially　a　doctrine　of　passive　obedience；　it　inculcates



submission　to　all　authorities　found　established；　who　indeed　are　not　to



be　actively　obeyed　when　they　command　what　religion　forbids；　but　who



are　not　to　be　resisted；　far　less　rebelled　against；　for　any　amount　of



wrong　to　ourselves。　And　while；　in　the　morality　of　the　best　Pagan



nations；　duty　to　the　State　holds　even　a　disproportionate　place；



infringing　on　the　just　liberty　of　the　individual；　in　purely



Christian　ethics；　that　grand　department　of　duty　is　scarcely　noticed　or



acknowledged。　It　is　in　the　Koran；　not　the　New　Testament；　that　we



read　the　maxim…　〃A　ruler　who　appoints　any　man　to　an　office；　when



there　is　in　his　dominions　another　man　better　qualified　for　it；　sins



against　God　and　against　the　State。〃　What　little　recognition　the　idea



of　obligation　to　the　public　obtains　in　modern　morality　is　derived　from



Greek　and　Roman　sources；　not　from　Christian；　as；　even　in　the



morality　of　private　life；　whatever　exists　of　magnanimity；



highmindedness；　personal　dignity；　even　the　sense　of　honour；　is　derived



from　the　purely　human；　not　the　religious　part　of　our　education；　and



never　could　have　grown　out　of　a　standard　of　ethics　in　which　the　only



worth；　professedly　recognised；　is　that　of　obedience。



　　I　am　as　far　as　any　one　from　pretending　that　these　defects　are



necessarily　inherent　in　the　Christian　ethics　in　every　manner　in



which　it　can　be　conceived；　or　that　the　many　requisites　of　a　complete



moral　doctrine　which　it　does　not　contain　do　not　admit　of　being



reconciled　with　it。　Far　less　would　I　insinuate　this　of　the　doctrines



and　precepts　of　Christ　himself。　I　believe　that　the　sayings　of　Christ



are　all　that　I　can　see　any　evidence　of　their　having　been　intended　to



be；　that　they　are　irreconcilable　with　nothing　which　a　comprehensive



morality　requires；　that　everything　which　is　excellent　in　ethics　may　be



brought　within　them；　with　no　greater　violence　to　their　language　than



has　been　done　to　it　by　all　who　have　attempted　to　deduce　from　them



any　practical　system　of　conduct　whatever。　But　it　is　quite　consistent



with　this　to　believe　that　they　contain；　and　were　meant　to　contain；



only　a　part　of　the　truth；　that　many　essential　elements　of　the



highest　morality　are　among　the　things　which　are　not　provided　for；



nor　intended　to　be　provided　for；　in　the　recorded　deliverances　of　the



Founder　of　Christianity；　and　which　have　been　entirely　thrown　aside



in　the　system　of　ethics　erected　on　the　basis　of　those　deliverances



by　the　Christian　Church。　And　this　being　so；　I　think　it　a　great　error



to　persist　in　attempting　to　find　in　the　Christian　doctrine　that



complete　rule　for　our　guidance　which　its　author　intended　it　to



sanction　and　enforce；　but　only　partially　to　provide。　I　believe；　too；



that　this　narrow　theory　is　becoming　a　grave　practical　evil；　detracting



greatly　from　the　moral　training　and　instruction　which　so　many



well…meaning　persons　are　now　at　length　exerting　themselves　to　promote。



I　much　fear　that　by　attempting　to　form　the　mind　and　feelings　on　an



exclusively　religious　type；　and　discarding　those　secular　standards　（as



for　want　of　a　better　name　they　may　be　called）　which　heretofore



coexisted　with　and　supplemented　the　Christian　ethics；　receiving　some



of　its　spirit；　and　infusing　into　it　some　of　theirs；　there　will　result；



and　is　even　now　resulting；　a　low；　abject；　servile　type　of　character；



which；　submit　itself　as　it　may　to　what　it　deems　the　Supreme　Will；　is



incapable　of　rising　to　or　sympathising　in　the　conception　of　Supreme



Goodness。　I　believe　that　other　ethics　than　any　which　can　be　evolved



from　exclusively　Christian　sources；　must　exist　side　by　side　with



Christian　ethics　to　produce　the　moral　regeneration　of　mankind；　and



that　the　Christian　system　is　no　exception　to　the　rule；　that　in　an



imperfect　state　of　the　human　mind　the　interests　of　truth　require　a



diversity　of　opinions。



　　It　is　not　necessary　that　in　ceasing　to　ignore　the　moral　truths　not



contained　in　Christianity　men　should　ignore　any　of　those　which　it　does



contain。　Such　prejudice；　or　oversight；　when　it　occurs；　is　altogether



an　evil；　but　it　is　one　from　which　we　cannot　hope　to　be　always



exempt；　and　must　be　regarded　as　the　price　paid　for　an　inestimable



good。　The　exclusive　pretension　made　by　a　part　of　the　truth　to　be　the



whole；　must　and　ought　to　be　protested　against；　and　if　a　reactionary



impulse　should　make　the　protestors　unjust　in　their　turn；　this



one…sidedness；　like　the　other；　may　be　lamented；　but　must　be　tolerated。



If　Christians　would　teach　infidels　to　be　just　to　Christianity；　they



should　themselves　be　just　to　infidelity。　It　can　do　truth　no　service　to



blink　the　fact；　known　to　all　who　have　the　most　ordinary　acquaintance



with　literary　history；　that　a　large　portion　of　the　noblest　and　most



valuable　moral　teaching　has　been　the　work；　not　only　of　men　who　did　not



know；　but　of　men　who　knew　and　rejected；　the　Christian　faith。



　　I　do　not　pretend　that　the　most　unlimited　use　of　the　freedom　of



enunciating　all　possible　opinions　would　put　an　end　to　the　evils　of



religious　or　philosophical　sectarianism。　Every　truth　which　men　of



narrow　capacity　are　in　earnest　about；　is　sure　to　be　asserted；



inculcated；　and　in　many　ways　even　acted　on；　as　if　no　other　truth



existed　in　the　world；　or　at　all　events　none　that　could　limit　or



qualify　the　first。　I　acknowledge　that　the　tendency　of　all　opinions



to　become　sectarian　is　not　cured　by　the　freest　discussion；　but　is



often　heightened　and　exacerbated　thereby；　the　truth　which　ought　to



have　been；　but　was　not；　seen；　being　rejected　all　the　more　violently



because　proclaimed　by　persons　regarded　as　opponents。　But　it　is　not



on　the　impassioned　partisan；　it　is　on　the　calmer　and　more



disinterested　bystander；　that　this　collision　of　opinions　works　its



salutary　effect。　Not　the　violent　conflict　between　parts　of　the



truth；　but　the　quiet　suppression　of　half　of　it；　is　the　formidable



evil；　there　is　always　hope　when　people　are　forced　to　listen　to　both



sides；　it　is　when　they　attend　only　to　one　that　errors　harden　into



prejudices；　and　truth　itself　ceases　to　have　the　effect　of　truth；　by



being　exaggerated　into　falsehood。　And　since　there　are　few　mental



attributes　more　rare　than　that　judicial　faculty　which　can　sit　in



intelligent　judgment　between　two　sides　of　a　question；　of　which　only



one　is　represented　by　an　advocate　before　it；　truth　has　no　chance　but



in　proportion　as　every　side　of　it；　every　opinion　which　embodies　any



fraction　of　the　truth；　not　only　finds　advocates；　but　is　so　advocated



as　to　be　listened　to。







　　We　have　now　recognised　the　necessity　to　the　mental　well…being　of



mankind　（on　which　all　their　other　well…being　depends）　of　freedom　of



opinion；　and　freedom　of　the　expre