the crowd-第17章

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analogous　to　those　which　compel　the　acorn　to　transform　itself　into　an　oak　or　a　comet　to　follow　its　orbit。

What　little　insight　we　can　get　into　these　forces　must　be　sought　for　in　the　general　course　of　the　evolution　of　a　people；　and　not　in　the　isolated　facts　from　which　this　evolution　appears　at　times　to　proceed。　　Were　these　facts　alone　to　be　taken　into　consideration；　history　would　seem　to　be　the　result　of　a　series　of　improbable　chances。　　It　was　improbable　that　a　Galilean　carpenter　should　become　for　two　thousand　years　an　all…powerful　God　in　whose　name　the　most　important　civilisations　were　founded；　improbable；　too；　that　a　few　bands　of　Arabs；　emerging　from　their　deserts；　should　conquer　the　greater　part　of　the　old　Graco…Roman　world；　and　establish　an　empire　greater　than　that　of　Alexander；　improbable；　again；　that　in　Europe；　at　an　advanced　period　of　its　development；　and　when　authority　throughout　it　had　been　systematically　hierarchised；　an　obscure　lieutenant　of　artillery　should　have　succeeded　in　reigning　over　a　multitude　of　peoples　and　kings。

Let　us　leave　reason；　then；　to　philosophers；　and　not　insist　too　strongly　on　its　intervention　in　the　governing　of　men。　　It　is　not　by　reason；　but　most　often　in　spite　of　it；　that　are　created　those　sentiments　that　are　the　mainsprings　of　all　civilisationsentiments　such　as　honour；　self…　sacrifice；　religious　faith；　patriotism；　and　the　love　of　glory。



CHAPTER　III

THE　LEADERS　OF　CROWDS　AND　THEIR　MEANS　OF　PERSUASION

1。　THE　LEADERS　OF　CROWDS。　　The　instinctive　need　of　all　beings　forming　a　crowd　to　obey　a　leaderThe　psychology　of　the　leaders　of　crowdsThey　alone　can　endow　crowds　with　faith　and　organise　themThe　leaders　forcibly　despoticClassification　of　the　leadersThe　part　played　by　the　will。　　　2。　THE　MEANS　OF　ACTION　OF　THE　LEADERS。　　Affirmation；　repetition；　contagionThe　respective　part　of　these　different　factorsThe　way　in　which　contagion　may　spread　from　the　lower　to　the　upper　classes　in　a　societyA　popular　opinion　soon　becomes　a　general　opinion。　3。　PRESTIGE。　Definition　of　prestige　and　classification　of　its　different　kindsAcquired　prestige　and　personal　prestigeVarious　examplesThe　way　in　which　prestige　is　destroyed。


We　are　now　acquainted　with　the　mental　constitution　of　crowds；　and　we　also　know　what　are　the　motives　capable　of　making　an　impression　on　their　mind。　　It　remains　to　investigate　how　these　motives　may　be　set　in　action；　and　by　whom　they　may　usefully　be　turned　to　practical　account。

1。　THE　LEADERS　OF　CROWDS。


As　soon　as　a　certain　number　of　living　beings　are　gathered　together；　whether　they　be　animals　or　men；　they　place　themselves　instinctively　under　the　authority　of　a　chief。

In　the　case　of　human　crowds　the　chief　is　often　nothing　more　than　a　ringleader　or　agitator；　but　as　such　he　plays　a　considerable　part。　　His　will　is　the　nucleus　around　which　the　opinions　of　the　crowd　are　grouped　and　attain　to　identity。　　He　constitutes　the　first　element　towards　the　organisation　of　heterogeneous　crowds；　and　paves　the　way　for　their　organisation　in　sects；　in　the　meantime　he　directs　them。　　A　crowd　is　a　servile　flock　that　is　incapable　of　ever　doing　without　a　master。

The　leader　has　most　often　started　as　one　of　the　led。　　He　has　himself　been　hypnotised　by　the　idea；　whose　apostle　he　has　since　become。　　It　has　taken　possession　of　him　to　such　a　degree　that　everything　outside　it　vanishes；　and　that　every　contrary　opinion　appears　to　him　an　error　or　a　superstition。　　An　example　in　point　is　Robespierre；　hypnotised　by　the　philosophical　ideas　of　Rousseau；　and　employing　the　methods　of　the　Inquisition　to　propagate　them。

The　leaders　we　speak　of　are　more　frequently　men　of　action　than　thinkers。　　They　are　not　gifted　with　keen　foresight；　nor　could　they　be；　as　this　quality　generally　conduces　to　doubt　and　inactivity。　　They　are　especially　recruited　from　the　ranks　of　those　morbidly　nervous；　excitable；　half…deranged　persons　who　are　bordering　on　madness。　　However　absurd　may　be　the　idea　they　uphold　or　the　goal　they　pursue；　their　convictions　are　so　strong　that　all　reasoning　is　lost　upon　them。　　Contempt　and　persecution　do　not　affect　them；　or　only　serve　to　excite　them　the　more。　　They　sacrifice　their　personal　interest；　their　familyeverything。　　The　very　instinct　of　self…preservation　is　entirely　obliterated　in　them；　and　so　much　so　that　often　the　only　recompense　they　solicit　is　that　of　martyrdom。　　The　intensity　of　their　faith　gives　great　power　of　suggestion　to　their　words。　　The　multitude　is　always　ready　to　listen　to　the　strong…willed　man；　who　knows　how　to　impose　himself　upon　it。　　Men　gathered　in　a　crowd　lose　all　force　of　will；　and　turn　instinctively　to　the　person　who　possesses　the　quality　they　lack。

Nations　have　never　lacked　leaders；　but　all　of　the　latter　have　by　no　means　been　animated　by　those　strong　convictions　proper　to　apostles。　　These　leaders　are　often　subtle　rhetoricians；　seeking　only　their　own　personal　interest；　and　endeavouring　to　persuade　by　flattering　base　instincts。　　The　influence　they　can　assert　in　this　manner　may　be　very　great；　but　it　is　always　ephemeral。　　The　men　of　ardent　convictions　who　have　stirred　the　soul　of　crowds；　the　Peter　the　Hermits；　the　Luthers；　the　Savonarolas；　the　men　of　the　French　Revolution；　have　only　exercised　their　fascination　after　having　been　themselves　fascinated　first　of　all　by　a　creed。　　They　are　then　able　to　call　up　in　the　souls　of　their　fellows　that　formidable　force　known　as　faith；　which　renders　a　man　the　absolute　slave　of　his　dream。

The　arousing　of　faithwhether　religious；　political；　or　social；　whether　faith　in　a　work；　in　a　person；　or　an　ideahas　always　been　the　function　of　the　great　leaders　of　crowds；　and　it　is　on　this　account　that　their　influence　is　always　very　great。　　Of　all　the　forces　at　the　disposal　of　humanity；　faith　has　always　been　one　of　the　most　tremendous；　and　the　gospel　rightly　attributes　to　it　the　power　of　moving　mountains。　　To　endow　a　man　with　faith　is　to　multiply　his　strength　tenfold。　　The　great　events　of　history　have　been　brought　about　by　obscure　believers；　who　have　had　little　beyond　their　faith　in　their　favour。　　It　is　not　by　the　aid　of　the　learned　or　of　philosophers；　and　still　less　of　sceptics；　that　have　been　built　up　the　great　religions　which　have　swayed　the　world；　or　the　vast　empires　which　have　spread　from　one　hemisphere　to　the　other。

In　the　cases　just　cited；　however；　we　are　dealing　with　great　leaders；　and　they　are　so　few　in　number　that　history　can　easily　reckon　them　up。　　They　form　the　summit　of　a　continuous　series；　which　extends　from　these　powerful　masters　of　men　down　to　the　workman　who；　in　the　smoky　atmosphere　of　an　inn；　slowly　fascinates　his　comrades　by　ceaselessly　drumming　into　their　ears　a　few　set　phrases；　whose　purport　he　scarcely　comprehends；　but　the　application　of　which；　according　to　him；　must　surely　bring　about　the　realisation　of　all　dreams　and　of　every　hope。

In　every　social　sphere；　from　the　highest　to　the　lowest；　as　soon　as　a　man　ceases　to　be　isolated　he　speedily　falls　under　the　influence　of　a　leader。　　The　majority　of　men；　especially　among　the　masses；　do　not　possess　clear　and　reasoned　ideas　on　any　subject　whatever　outside　their　own　speciality。　　The　leader　serves　them　as　guide。　　It　is　just　possible　that　he　may　be　replaced；　though　very　inefficiently；　by　the　periodical　publications　which　manufacture　opinions　for　their　readers　and　supply　them　with　ready…　made　phrases　which　dispense　them　of　the　trouble　of　reasoning。

The　leaders　of　crowds　wield　a　very　despotic　authority；　and　this　despotism　indeed　is　a　condition　of　their　obtaining　a　following。　It　has　often　been　remarked　how　easily　they　extort　obedience；　although　without　any　means　of　backing　up　their　authority；　from　the　most　turbulent　section　of　the　working　classes。　　They　fix　the　hours　of　labour　and　the　rate　of　wages；　and　they　decree　strikes；　which　are　begun　and　ended　at　the　hour　they　ordain。

At　the　present　day　these　leaders　and　agitators　tend　more　and　more　to　usurp　the　place　of　the　public　authorities　in　proportion　as　the　latter　allow　themselves　to　be　called　in　question　and　shorn　of　their　strength。　　The　tyranny　of　these　new　masters　has　for　result　that　the　crowds　obey　them　much　more　docilely　than　they　have　obeyed　any　government。　　If　in　consequence　of　some　accident　or　other　the　leaders　should　be　removed　from　the　scene　the　crowd　returns　to　its　original　state　of　a　collectivity　without　cohesion　or　force　of　resistance。　　During　the　last　strike　of　the　Parisian　omnibus　employes　the　arrest　of　the　two　leaders　who　were　directing　it　was　at　once　sufficient　to　bring　it　to　an　end。　　It　is　the　need　not　of　liberty　but　of　servitude　that　is　always　predominant　in　the　soul　of　crowds。　　They　are　so　bent　on　obedience　that　they　instinctively　submit　to　whoever　declares　himself　their　master。

These　ringleaders　and　agitators　may　be　divided　into　two　clearly　defined　classes。　　The　one　includes　the　men　who　are　energetic　and　possess；　but　only　intermittently；　much　strength　of　will；　the　other　the　men；　far　rarer　than　the　preceding；　whose　strength　of　will　is　enduring。　　The　first　mentioned　are　violent；　brave；　and　audacious。　　They　are　more　especially　useful　to　direct　a　violent　enterprise　suddenly　decided　on；　to　carry　the　masses　with　them　in　spite　of　danger；　and　to　transform　into　heroes　the　men　who　but　yesterday　were　recruits。　　Men　of　this　kind　were　Ney　and　Murat　under　the　First　Empire；　and　such　a　man　in　our　own　time　was　Garibaldi；　a　talentless　but　energetic　adventurer　who　succeeded　with　a　handful　of　men　in　laying　hands　on　the　ancient　kingdom　of　Naples；　defended　though　it　was　by　a　disciplined　army。

Still；　though　the　energy　of　leaders　of　this　class　is　a　force　to　be　reckoned　with；　it　is　transitory；　and　scarcely　outlasts　the　exciting　cause　that　has　brought　it　into　play。　　When　they　have　returned　to　their　ordinary　course　of　life　the　heroes　animated　by　energy　of　this　description　often　evince；　as　was　the　case　with　those　I　have　just　cited；　the　most　astonishing　weakness　of　character。　　They　seem　incapable　of　reflection　and　of　conducting　themselves　under　the　simplest　circumstances；　although　they　had　been　able　to　lead　others。　　These　men　are　leaders　who　cannot　exercise　their　function　except　on　the　condition　that　they　be　led　themselves　and　continually　stimulated；　that　they　have　always　as　their　beacon　a　man　or　an　idea；　that　they　follow　a　line　of　conduct　clearly　traced。　　The　second　category　of　leaders；　that　of　men　of　enduring　strength　of　will；　have；　in　spite　of　a　less　brilliant　aspect；　a　much　more　considerable　influence。　　In　this　category　are　to　be　found　the　true　founders　of　religions　and　great　undertakings：　St。　Paul；　Mahomet；　Christopher　Columbus；　and　de　Lesseps；　for　example。　　Whether　they　be　intelligent　or　narrow…minded　is　of　no　importance：　the　world　belongs　to　them。　The　persistent　will…force　they　possess　is　an　immensely　rare　and　immensely　powerful　faculty　to　which　everything　yields。　　What　a　strong　and　continuous　will　is　capable　of　is　not　always　properly　appreciated。　　Nothing　resists　it；　neither　nature；　gods；　nor　man。

The　most　recent　example　of　what　can　be　effected　by　a　strong　and　continuous　will　is　afforded　us　by　the　illustrious　man　who　separated　the　Eastern　and　Western　worlds；　and　accomplished　a　task　that　during　three　thousand　years　had　been　attempted　in　vain　by　the　greatest　sovereigns。　　He　failed　later　in　an　identical　enterprise；　but　then　had　intervened　old　age；　to　which　eve