the crowd-第13章

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anish…American　Republics；　are　found　existing　in　a　pitiable　state　of　anarchy　under　absolutely　similar　institutions；　we　should　admit　that　these　institutions　are　as　foreign　to　the　greatness　of　the　one　as　to　the　decadence　of　the　others。　　Peoples　are　governed　by　their　character；　and　all　institutions　which　are　not　intimately　modelled　on　that　character　merely　represent　a　borrowed　garment；　a　transitory　disguise。　　No　doubt　sanguinary　wars　and　violent　revolutions　have　been　undertaken；　and　will　continue　to　be　undertaken；　to　impose　institutions　to　which　is　attributed；　as　to　the　relics　of　saints；　the　supernatural　power　of　creating　welfare。　It　may　be　said；　then；　in　one　sense；　that　institutions　react　on　the　mind　of　the　crowd　inasmuch　as　they　engender　such　upheavals。　But　in　reality　it　is　not　the　institutions　that　react　in　this　manner；　since　we　know　that；　whether　triumphant　or　vanquished；　they　possess　in　themselves　no　virtue。　　It　is　illusions　and　words　that　have　influenced　the　mind　of　the　crowd；　and　especially　words　words　which　are　as　powerful　as　they　are　chimerical；　and　whose　astonishing　sway　we　shall　shortly　demonstrate。


5。　INSTRUCTION　AND　EDUCATION


Foremost　among　the　dominant　ideas　of　the　present　epoch　is　to　be　found　the　notion　that　instruction　is　capable　of　considerably　changing　men；　and　has　for　its　unfailing　consequence　to　improve　them　and　even　to　make　them　equal。　　By　the　mere　fact　of　its　being　constantly　repeated；　this　assertion　has　ended　by　becoming　one　of　the　most　steadfast　democratic　dogmas。　　It　would　be　as　difficult　now　to　attack　it　as　it　would　have　been　formerly　to　have　attacked　the　dogmas　of　the　Church。

On　this　point；　however；　as　on　many　others；　democratic　ideas　are　in　profound　disagreement　with　the　results　of　psychology　and　experience。　　Many　eminent　philosophers；　among　them　Herbert　Spencer；　have　had　no　difficulty　in　showing　that　instruction　neither　renders　a　man　more　moral　nor　happier；　that　it　changes　neither　his　instincts　nor　his　hereditary　passions；　and　that　at　timesfor　this　to　happen　it　need　only　be　badly　directedit　is　much　more　pernicious　than　useful。　　Statisticians　have　brought　confirmation　of　these　views　by　telling　us　that　criminality　increases　with　the　generalisation　of　instruction；　or　at　any　rate　of　a　certain　kind　of　instruction；　and　that　the　worst　enemies　of　society；　the　anarchists；　are　recruited　among　the　prize…winners　of　schools；　while　in　a　recent　work　a　distinguished　magistrate；　M。　Adolphe　Guillot；　made　the　observation　that　at　present　3；000　educated　criminals　are　met　with　for　every　1；000　illiterate　delinquents；　and　that　in　fifty　years　the　criminal　percentage　of　the　population　has　passed　from　227　to　552　for　every　100；000　inhabitants；　an　increase　of　133　per　cent。　　He　has　also　noted　in　common　with　his　colleagues　that　criminality　is　particularly　on　the　increase　among　young　persons；　for　whom；　as　is　known；　gratuitous　and　obligatory　schooling　hasin　Francereplaced　apprenticeship。

It　is　not　assuredlyand　nobody　has　ever　maintained　this　proposition　that　well…directed　instruction　may　not　give　very　useful　practical　results；　if　not　in　the　sense　of　raising　the　standard　of　morality；　at　least　in　that　of　developing　professional　capacity。　　Unfortunately　the　Latin　peoples；　especially　in　the　last　twenty…five　years；　have　based　their　systems　of　instruction　on　very　erroneous　principles；　and　in　spite　of　the　observations　of　the　most　eminent　minds；　such　as　Breal；　Fustel　de　Coulanges；　Taine；　and　many　others；　they　persist　in　their　lamentable　mistakes。　　I　have　myself　shown；　in　a　work　published　some　time　ago；　that　the　French　system　of　education　transforms　the　majority　of　those　who　have　undergone　it　into　enemies　of　society；　and　recruits　numerous　disciples　for　the　worst　forms　of　socialism。

The　primary　danger　of　this　system　of　educationvery　properly　qualified　as　Latinconsists　in　the　fact　that　it　is　based　on　the　fundamental　psychological　error　that　the　intelligence　is　developed　by　the　learning　by　heart　of　text…books。　　Adopting　this　view；　the　endeavour　has　been　made　to　enforce　a　knowledge　of　as　many　hand…books　as　possible。　　From　the　primary　school　till　he　leaves　the　university　a　young　man　does　nothing　but　acquire　books　by　heart　without　his　judgment　or　personal　initiative　being　ever　called　into　play。　　Education　consists　for　him　in　reciting　by　heart　and　obeying。

〃Learning　lessons；　knowing　by　heart　a　grammar　or　a　compendium；　repeating　well　and　imitating　wellthat；〃　writes　a　former　Minister　of　Public　Instruction；　M。　Jules　Simon；　〃is　a　ludicrous　form　of　education　whose　every　effort　is　an　act　of　faith　tacitly　admitting　the　infallibility　of　the　master；　and　whose　only　results　are　a　belittling　of　ourselves　and　a　rendering　of　us　impotent。〃

Were　this　education　merely　useless；　one　might　confine　one's　self　to　expressing　compassion　for　the　unhappy　children　who；　instead　of　making　needful　studies　at　the　primary　school；　are　instructed　in　the　genealogy　of　the　sons　of　Clotaire；　the　conflicts　between　Neustria　and　Austrasia；　or　zoological　classifications。　　But　the　system　presents　a　far　more　serious　danger。　　It　gives　those　who　have　been　submitted　to　it　a　violent　dislike　to　the　state　of　life　in　which　they　were　born；　and　an　intense　desire　to　escape　from　it。　The　working　man　no　longer　wishes　to　remain　a　working　man；　or　the　peasant　to　continue　a　peasant；　while　the　most　humble　members　of　the　middle　classes　admit　of　no　possible　career　for　their　sons　except　that　of　State…paid　functionaries。　　Instead　of　preparing　men　for　life　French　schools　solely　prepare　them　to　occupy　public　functions；　in　which　success　can　be　attained　without　any　necessity　for　self…direction　or　the　exhibition　of　the　least　glimmer　of　personal　initiative。　　At　the　bottom　of　the　social　ladder　the　system　creates　an　army　of　proletarians　discontented　with　their　lot　and　always　ready　to　revolt；　while　at　the　summit　it　brings　into　being　a　frivolous　bourgeoisie；　at　once　sceptical　and　credulous；　having　a　superstitious　confidence　in　the　State；　whom　it　regards　as　a　sort　of　Providence；　but　without　forgetting　to　display　towards　it　a　ceaseless　hostility；　always　laying　its　own　faults　to　the　door　of　the　Government；　and　incapable　of　the　least　enterprise　without　the　intervention　of　the　authorities。

The　State；　which　manufactures　by　dint　of　textbooks　all　these　persons　possessing　diplomas；　can　only　utilise　a　small　number　of　them；　and　is　forced　to　leave　the　others　without　employment。　　It　is　obliged　in　consequence　to　resign　itself　to　feeding　the　first　mentioned　and　to　having　the　others　as　its　enemies。　　From　the　top　to　the　bottom　of　the　social　pyramid；　from　the　humblest　clerk　to　the　professor　and　the　prefect；　the　immense　mass　of　persons　boasting　diplomas　besiege　the　professions。　　While　a　business　man　has　the　greatest　difficulty　in　finding　an　agent　to　represent　him　in　the　colonies；　thousands　of　candidates　solicit　the　most　modest　official　posts。　　There　are　20；000　schoolmasters　and　mistresses　without　employment　in　the　department　of　the　Seine　alone；　all　of　them　persons　who；　disdaining　the　fields　or　the　workshops；　look　to　the　State　for　their　livelihood。　　The　number　of　the　chosen　being　restricted；　that　of　the　discontented　is　perforce　immense。　　The　latter　are　ready　for　any　revolution；　whoever　be　its　chiefs　and　whatever　the　goal　they　aim　at。　　The　acquisition　of　knowledge　for　which　no　use　can　be　found　is　a　sure　method　of　driving　a　man　to　revolt。＇11＇


＇11＇　This　phenomenon；　moreover；　is　not　peculiar　to　the　Latin　peoples。　　It　is　also　to　be　observed　in　China；　which　is　also　a　country　in　the　hands　of　a　solid　hierarchy　of　mandarins　or　functionaries；　and　where　a　function　is　obtained；　as　in　France；　by　competitive　examination；　in　which　the　only　test　is　the　imperturbable　recitation　of　bulky　manuals。　　The　army　of　educated　persons　without　employment　is　considered　in　China　at　the　present　day　as　a　veritable　national　calamity。　　It　is　the　same　in　India　where；　since　the　English　have　opened　schools；　not　for　educating　purposes；　as　is　the　case　in　England　itself；　but　simply　to　furnish　the　indigenous　inhabitants　with　instruction；　there　has　been　formed　a　special　class　of　educated　persons；　the　Baboos；　who；　when　they　do　not　obtain　employment；　become　the　irreconcilable　enemies　of　the　English　rule。　　In　the　case　of　all　the　Baboos；　whether　provided　with　employment　or　not；　the　first　effect　of　their　instruction　has　been　to　lower　their　standard　of　morality。　　This　is　a　fact　on　which　I　have　insisted　at　length　in　my　book；　〃The　Civilisations　of　India〃a　fact；　too；　which　has　been　observed　by　all　authors　who　have　visited　the　great　peninsula。



It　is　evidently　too　late　to　retrace　our　steps。　　Experience　alone；　that　supreme　educator　of　peoples；　will　be　at　pains　to　show　us　our　mistake。　　It　alone　will　be　powerful　enough　to　prove　the　necessity　of　replacing　our　odious　text…books　and　our　pitiable　examinations　by　industrial　instruction　capable　of　inducing　our　young　men　to　return　to　the　fields；　to　the　workshop；　and　to　the　colonial　enterprise　which　they　avoid　to…day　at　all　costs。

The　professional　instruction　which　all　enlightened　minds　are　now　demanding　was　the　instruction　received　in　the　past　by　our　forefathers。　　It　is　still　in　vigour　at　the　present　day　among　the　nations　who　rule　the　world　by　their　force　of　will；　their　initiative；　and　their　spirit　of　enterprise。　　In　a　series　of　remarkable　pages；　whose　principal　passages　I　reproduce　further　on；　a　great　thinker；　M。　Taine；　has　clearly　shown　that　our　former　system　of　education　was　approximately　that　in　vogue　to…day　in　England　and　America；　and　in　a　remarkable　parallel　between　the　Latin　and　Anglo…Saxon　systems　he　has　plainly　pointed　out　the　consequences　of　the　two　methods。

One　might　consent；　perhaps；　at　a　pinch；　to　continue　to　accept　all　the　disadvantages　of　our　classical　education；　although　it　produced　nothing　but　discontented　men；　and　men　unfitted　for　their　station　in　life；　did　the　superficial　acquisition　of　so　much　knowledge；　the　faultless　repeating　by　heart　of　so　many　text…books；　raise　the　level　of　intelligence。　　But　does　it　really　raise　this　level？　　Alas；　no！　　The　conditions　of　success　in　life　are　the　possession　of　judgment；　experience；　initiative；　and　characterqualities　which　are　not　bestowed　by　books。　　Books　are　dictionaries；　which　it　is　useful　to　consult；　but　of　which　it　is　perfectly　useless　to　have　lengthy　portions　in　one's　head。

How　is　it　possible　for　professional　instruction　to　develop　the　intelligence　in　a　measure　quite　beyond　the　reach　of　classical　instruction？　　This　has　been　well　shown　by　M。　Taine。

〃Ideas；　he　says；　are　only　formed　in　their　natural　and　normal　surroundings；　the　promotion　of　the　growth　is　effected　by　the　innumerable　impressions　appealing　to　the　senses　which　a　young　man　receives　daily　in　the　workshop；　the　mine；　the　law　court；　the　study；　the　builder's　yard；　the　hospital；　at　the　sight　of　tools；　materials；　and　operations；　in　the　presence　of　customers；　workers；　and　labour；　of　work　well　or　ill　done；　costly　or　lucrative。　　In　such　a　way　are　obtained　those　trifling　perceptions　of　detail　of　the　eyes；　the　ear；　the　hands；　and　even　the　sense　of　smell；　which；　picked　up　involuntarily；　and　silently　elaborated；　take　shape　within　the　learner；　and　suggest　to　him　sooner　or；　later　this　or　that　new　combination；　simplification；　economy；　improvement；　or　invention。　　The　young　Frenchman　is　deprived；　and　precisely　at　the　age　whe