an enquiry concerning human understanding-第15章

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necessity；　which　we　ascribe　to　matter。　Beyond　the　constant
　of　similar　objects；　and　the　consequent
　from　one　to　the　other；　we　have　no　notion　of　any
necessity　or　connexion。

　　　　　If　it　appear；　therefore；　that　all　mankind　have　ever
allowed；　without　any　doubt　or　hesitation；　that　these　two
circumstances　take　place　in　the　voluntary　actions　of　men；
and　in　the　operations　of　mind；　it　must　follow；　that　all
mankind　have　ever　agreed　in　the　doctrine　of　necessity；　and
that　they　have　hitherto　disputed；　merely　for　not
understanding　each　other。

　　　　　As　to　the　first　circumstance；　the　constant　and　regular
conjunction　of　similar　events；　we　may　possibly　satisfy
ourselves　by　the　following　considerations：　It　is　universally
acknowledged　that　there　is　a　great　uniformity　among　the
actions　of　men；　in　all　nations　and　ages；　and　that　human
nature　remains　still　the　same；　in　its　principles　and
operations。　The　same　motives　always　produce　the　same
actions：　The　same　events　follow　from　the　same　causes。
Ambition；　avarice；　self…love；　vanity；　friendship；
generosity；　public　spirit：　These　passions；　mixed　in　various
degrees；　and　distributed　through　society；　have　been；　from
the　beginning　of　the　world；　and　still　are；　the　source　of　all
the　actions　and　enterprises；　which　have　ever　been　observed
among　mankind。　Would　you　know　the　sentiments；　inclinations；
and　course　of　life　of　the　G/REEKS　and　R/OMANS？　Study　well
the　temper　and　actions　of　the　F/RENCH　and　E/NGLISH：　You
cannot　be　much　mistaken　in　transferring　to　the　former　
of　the　observations　which　you　have　made　with　regard　to　the
latter。　Mankind　are　so　much　the　same；　in　all　times　and
places；　that　history　informs　us　of　nothing　new　or　strange　in
this　particular。　Its　chief　use　is　only　to　discover　the
constant　and　universal　principles　of　human　nature；　by
showing　men　in　all　varieties　of　circumstances　and
situations；　and　furnishing　us　with　materials　from　which　we
may　form　our　observations　and　become　acquainted　with　the
regular　springs　of　human　action　and　behaviour。　These　records
of　wars；　intrigues；　factions；　and　revolutions；　are　so　many
collections　of　experiments；　by　which　the　politician　or　moral
philosopher　fixes　the　principles　of　his　science；　in　the　same
manner　as　the　physician　or　natural　philosopher　becomes
acquainted　with　the　nature　of　plants；　minerals；　and　other
external　objects；　by　the　experiments　which　he　forms
concerning　them。　Nor　are　the　earth；　water；　and　other
elements；　examined　by　A/RISTOTLE；　and　H/IPPOCRATES；　more
like　to　those　which　at　present　lie　under　our　observation
than　the　men　described　by　P/OLYBIUS　and　T/ACITUS　are　to
those　who　now　govern　the　world。

　　　　　Should　a　traveller；　returning　from　a　far　country；　bring
us　an　account　of　men；　wholly　different　from　any　with　whom　we
were　ever　acquainted；　men；　who　were　entirely　divested　of
avarice；　ambition；　or　revenge；　who　knew　no　pleasure　but
friendship；　generosity；　and　public　spirit；　we　should
immediately；　from　these　circumstances；　detect　the　falsehood；
and　prove　him　a　liar；　with　the　same　certainty　as　if　he　had
stuffed　his　narration　with　stories　of　centaurs　and　dragons；
miracles　and　prodigies。　And　if　we　would　explode　any　forgery
in　history；　we　cannot　make　use　of　a　more　convincing
argument；　than　to　prove；　that　the　actions　ascribed　to　any
person　are　directly　contrary　to　the　course　of　nature；　and
that　no　human　motives；　in　such　circumstances；　could　ever
induce　him　to　such　a　conduct。　The　veracity　of　Q/UINTUS
C/URTIUS　is　as　much　to　be　suspected；　when　he　describes　the
supernatural　courage　of　A/LEXANDER；　by　which　he　was　hurried
on　singly　to　attack　multitudes；　as　when　he　describes　his
supernatural　force　and　activity；　by　which　he　was　able　to
resist　them。　So　readily　and　universally　do　we　acknowledge　a
uniformity　in　human　motives　and　actions　as　well　as　in　the
operations　of　body。

　　　　　Hence　likewise　the　benefit　of　that　experience；　acquired
by　long　life　and　a　variety　of　business　and　company；　in　order
to　instruct　us　in　the　principles　of　human　nature；　and
regulate　our　future　conduct；　as　well　as　speculation。　By
means　of　this　guide；　we　mount　up　to　the　knowledge　of　men's
inclinations　and　motives；　from　their　actions；　expressions；
and　even　gestures；　and　again　descend　to　the　interpretation
of　their　actions　from　our　knowledge　of　their　motives　and
inclinations。　The　general　observations　treasured　up　by　a
course　of　experience；　give　us　the　clue　of　human　nature；　and
teach　us　to　unravel　all　its　intricacies。　Pretexts　and
appearances　no　longer　deceive　us。　Public　declarations　pass
for　the　specious　colouring　of　a　cause。　And　though　virtue　and
honour　be　allowed　their　proper　weight　and　authority；　that
perfect　disinterestedness；　so　often　pretended　to；　is　never
expected　in　multitudes　and　parties；　seldom　in　their　leaders；
and　scarcely　even　in　individuals　of　any　rank　or　station。　But
were　there　no　uniformity　in　human　actions；　and　were　every
experiment　which　we　could　form　of　this　kind　irregular　and
anomalous；　it　were　impossible　to　collect　any　general
observations　concerning　mankind；　and　no　experience；　however
accurately　digested　by　reflection；　would　ever　serve　to　any
purpose。　Why　is　the　aged　husbandman　more　skilful　in　his
calling　than　the　young　beginner　but　because　there　is　a
certain　uniformity　in　the　operation　of　the　sun；　rain；　and
earth　towards　the　production　of　vegetables；　and　experience
teaches　the　old　practitioner　the　rules　by　which　this
operation　is　governed　and　directed。

　　　　　We　must　not；　however；　expect　that　this　uniformity　of
human　actions　should　be　carried　to　such　a　length　as　that　all
men；　in　the　same　circumstances；　will　always　act　precisely　in
the　same　manner；　without　making　any　allowance　for　the
diversity　of　characters；　prejudices；　and　opinions。　Such　a
uniformity　in　every　particular；　is　found　in　no　part　of
nature。　On　the　contrary；　from　observing　the　variety　of
conduct　in　different　men；　we　are　enabled　to　form　a　greater
variety　of　maxims；　which　still　suppose　a　degree　of
uniformity　and　regularity。

　　　　　Are　the　manners　of　men　different　in　different　ages　and
countries？　We　learn　thence　the　great　force　of　custom　and
education；　which　mould　the　human　mind　from　its　infancy　and
form　it　into　a　fixed　and　established　character。　Is　the
behaviour　and　conduct　of　the　one　sex　very　unlike　that　of　the
other？　Is　it　thence　we　become　acquainted　with　the　different
characters　which　nature　has　impressed　upon　the　sexes；　and
which　she　preserves　with　constancy　and　regularity？　Are　the
actions　of　the　same　person　much　diversified　in　the　different
periods　of　his　life；　from　infancy　to　old　age？　This　affords
room　for　many　general　observations　concerning　the　gradual
change　of　our　sentiments　and　inclinations；　and　the　different
maxims　which　prevail　in　the　different　ages　of　human
creatures。　Even　the　characters；　which　are　peculiar　to　each
individual；　have　a　uniformity　in　their　influence；　otherwise
our　acquaintance　with　the　persons　and　our　observation　of
their　conduct　could　never　teach　us　their　dispositions；　or
serve　to　direct　our　behaviour　with　regard　to　them。

　　　　　I　grant　it　possible　to　find　some　actions；　which　seem　to
have　no　regular　connexion　with　any　known　motives；　and　are
exceptions　to　all　the　measures　of　conduct　which　have　ever
been　established　for　the　government　of　men。　But　if　we　would
willingly　know　what　judgment　should　be　formed　of　such
irregular　and　extraordinary　actions；　we　may　consider　the
sentiments　commonly　entertained　with　regard　to　those
irregular　events　which　appear　in　the　course　of　nature；　and
the　operations　of　external　objects。　All　causes　are　not
conjoined　to　their　usual　effects　with　like　uniformity。　An
artificer；　who　handles　only　dead　matter；　may　be　disappointed
of　his　aim；　as　well　as　the　politician；　who　directs　the
conduct　of　sensible　and　intelligent　agents。

　　　　　The　vulgar；　who　take　things　according　to　their　first
appearance；　attribute　the　uncertainty　of　events　to　such　an
uncertainty　in　the　causes　as　makes　the　latter　often　fail　of
their　usual　influence；　though　they　meet　with　no　impediment
in　their　operation。　But　philosophers；　observing　that；　almost
in　every　part　of　nature；　there　is　contained　a　vast　variety
of　springs　and　principles；　which　are　hid；　by　reason　of　their
minuteness　or　remoteness；　find；　that　it　is　at　least　possible
the　contrariety　of　events　may　not　proceed　from　any
contingency　in　the　cause；　but　from　the　secret　operation　of
contrary　causes。　This　possibility　is　converted　into
certainty　by　farther　observation；　when　they　remark　that；
upon　an　exact　scrutiny；　a　contrariety　of　effects　always
betrays　a　contrariety　of　causes；　and　proceeds　from　their
mutual　opposition。　A　peasant　can　give　no　better　reason　for
the　stopping　of　any　clock　or　watch　than　to　say　that　it　does
not　commonly　go　right：　But　an　artist　easily　perceives　that
the　same　force　in　the　spring　or　pendulum　has　always　the　same
influence　on　the　wheels；　but　fails　of　its　usual　effects；
perhaps　by　reason　of　a　grain　of　dust；　which　puts　a　stop　to
the　whole　movement。　From　the　observation　of　several　parallel
instances；　philosophers　form　a　maxim　that　the　connexion
between　all　causes　and　effects　is　equally　necessary；　and
that　its　seeming　uncertainty　in　some　instances　proceeds　from
the　secret　opposition　of　contrary　causes。

　　　　　Thus；　for　instance；　in　the　human　body；　when　the　usual
symptoms　of　health　or　sickness　disappoint　our　expectation；
when　medicines　operate　not　with　their　wonted　powers；　when
irregular　events　follow　from　any　particular　cause；　the
philosopher　and　physician　are　not　surprised　at　the　matter；
nor　are　ever　tempted　to　deny；　in　general；　the　necessity　and
uniformity　of　those　principles　by　which　the　animal　economy
is　conducted。　They　know　that　a　human　body　is　a　mighty
complicated　machine：　That　many　secret　powers　lurk　in　it；
which　are　altogether　beyond　our　comprehension：　That　to　us　it
must　often　appear　very　uncertain　in　its　operations：　And　that
therefore　the　irregular　events；　which　outwardly　discover
themselves；　can　be　no　proof　that　the　laws　of　nature　are　not
observed　with　the　greatest　regularity　in　its　internal
operations　and　government。

　　　　　The　philosopher；　if　he　be　consistent；　must　apply　the
same　reasoning　to　the　actions　and　volitions　of　intelligent
agents。　The　most　irregular　and　unexpected　resolutions　of　men
may　frequently　be　accounted　for　by　those　who　know　every
particular　circumstance　of　their　character　and　situation。　A
person　of　an　obliging　disposition　gives　a　peevish　answer：
But　he　has　the　toothache；　or　has　not　dined。　A　stupid　fellow
discovers　an　uncommon　alacrity　in　his　carriage：　But　he　has
met　with　a　sudden　piece　of　good　fortune。　Or　even　when　an
action；　as　sometimes　happens；　cannot　be　particularly
accounted　for；　either　by　the　person　himself　or　by　others；　we
know；　in　general；　that　the　characters　of　men　are；　to　a
certain　degree；　inconstant　and　irregular。　This　is；　in　a
manner；　the　constant　character　of　human　nature；　though　it　be
applicable；　in　a　more　particular　manner；　to　some　persons　who
have　no　fixed　rule　for　their　conduct；　but　proceed　in　a
continued　course　of　caprice　and　inconstancy。　The　internal
principles　and　motives　may　operate　in　a　uniform　manner；
notwithstanding　these　seeming　irregularities；　in　the　same
manner　as　the