the story of mankind-第15章

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Sea；　and　a　Greek　on　his　mother's　side；　had　seen　the　possibility

of　establishing　a　second　Alexandrian　Empire。　He　began　his

campaign　for　world…domination　with　the　murder　of　all　Roman

citizens　who　happened　to　be　in　Asia　Minor；　men；　women　and

children。　Such　an　act；　of　course；　meant　war。　The　Senate

equipped　an　army　to　march　against　the　King　of　Pontus　and

punish　him　for　his　crime。　But　who　was　to　be　commander…in…

chief？　‘‘Sulla；''　said　the　Senate；　‘‘because　he　is　Consul。''

‘‘Marius；''　said　the　mob；　‘‘because　he　has　been　Consul　five　times

and　because　he　is　the　champion　of　our　rights。''



Possession　is　nine　points　of　the　law。　Sulla　happened　to　be

in　actual　command　of　the　army。　He　went　west　to　defeat

Mithridates　and　Marius　fled　to　Africa。　There　he　waited

until　he　heard　that　Sulla　had　crossed　into　Asia。　He　then

returned　to　Italy；　gathered　a　motley　crew　of　malcontents；

marched　on　Rome　and　entered　the　city　with　his　professional

highwaymen；　spent　five　days　and　five　nights；　slaughtering　the

enemies　of　the　Senatorial　party；　got　himself　elected　Consul　and

promptly　died　from　the　excitement　of　the　last　fortnight。



There　followed　four　years　of　disorder。　Then　Sulla；　having

defeated　Mithridates；　announced　that　he　was　ready　to　return

to　Rome　and　settle　a　few　old　scores　of　his　own。　He　was　as

good　as　his　word。　For　weeks　his　soldiers　were　busy　executing

those　of　their　fellow　citizens　who　were　suspected　of　democratic

sympathies。　One　day　they　got　hold　of　a　young　fellow　who

had　been　often　seen　in　the　company　of　Marius。　They　were

going　to　hang　him　when　some　one　interfered。　‘‘The　boy　is　too

young；''　he　said；　and　they　let　him　go。　His　name　was　Julius

Caesar。　You　shall　meet　him　again　on　the　next　page。



As　for　Sulla；　he　became　‘‘Dictator；''　which　meant　sole　and

supreme　ruler　of　all　the　Roman　possessions。　He　ruled　Rome

for　four　years；　and　he　died　quietly　in　his　bed；　having　spent　the

last　year　of　his　life　tenderly　raising　his　cabbages；　as　was　the

custom　of　so　many　Romans　who　had　spent　a　lifetime　killing

their　fellow…men。



But　conditions　did　not　grow　better。　On　the　contrary；　they

grew　worse。　Another　general；　Gnaeus　Pompeius；　or　Pompey；

a　close　friend　of　Sulla；　went　east　to　renew　the　war　against　the

ever　troublesome　Mithridates。　He　drove　that　energetic　potentate

into　the　mountains　where　Mithridates　took　poison　and

killed　himself；　well　knowing　what　fate　awaited　him　as　a　Roman

captive。　Next　he　re…established　the　authority　of　Rome　over

Syria；　destroyed　Jerusalem；　roamed　through　western　Asia；

trying　to　revive　the　myth　of　Alexander　the　Great；　and　at　last

（in　the　year　62）　returned　to　Rome　with　a　dozen　ship…loads　of

defeated　Kings　and　Princes　and　Generals；　all　of　whom　were

forced　to　march　in　the　triumphal　procession　of　this　enormously

popular　Roman　who　presented　his　city　with　the　sum　of　forty

million　dollars　in　plunder。



It　was　necessary　that　the　government　of　Rome　be　placed

in　the　hands　of　a　strong　man。　Only　a　few　months　before；　the

town　had　almost　fallen　into　the　hands　of　a　good…for…nothing

young　aristocrat　by　the　name　of　Catiline；　who　had　gambled

away　his　money　and　hoped　to　reimburse　himself　for　his　losses　by

a　little　plundering。　Cicero；　a　public…spirited　lawyer；　had　discovered

the　plot；　had　warned　the　Senate；　and　had　forced　Catiline

to　flee。　But　there　were　other　young　men　with　similar　ambitions

and　it　was　no　time　for　idle　talk。



Pompey　organised　a　triumvirate　which　was　to　take　charge

of　affairs。　He　became　the　leader　of　this　Vigilante　Committee。

Gaius　Julius　Caesar；　who　had　made　a　reputation　for　himself

as　governor　of　Spain；　was　the　second　in　command。　The

third　was　an　indifferent　sort　of　person　by　the　name　of　Crassus。

He　had　been　elected　because　he　was　incredibly　rich；　having　been

a　successful　contractor　of　war　supplies。　He　soon　went　upon

an　expedition　against　the　Parthians　and　was　killed。



As　for　Caesar；　who　was　by　far　the　ablest　of　the　three；　he

decided　that　he　needed　a　little　more　military　glory　to　become

a　popular　hero。　He　crossed　the　Alps　and　conquered　that　part

of　the　world　which　is　now　called　France。　Then　he　hammered

a　solid　wooden　bridge　across　the　Rhine　and　invaded　the　land

of　the　wild　Teutons。　Finally　he　took　ship　and　visited　England。

Heaven　knows　where　he　might　have　ended　if　he　had　not　been

forced　to　return　to　Italy。　Pompey；　so　he　was　informed；　had

been　appointed　dictator　for　life。　This　of　course　meant　that

Caesar　was　to　be　placed　on　the　list　of　the　‘‘retired　officers；''　and

the　idea　did　not　appeal　to　him。　He　remembered　that　he　had

begun　life　as　a　follower　of　Marius。　He　decided　to　teach　the

Senators　and　their　‘‘dictator''　another　lesson。　He　crossed　the

Rubicon　River　which　separated　the　province　of　Cis…alpine　Gaul

from　Italy。　Everywhere　he　was　received　as　the　‘‘friend　of　the

people。''　Without　difficulty　Caesar　entered　Rome　and　Pompey

fled　to　Greece　Caesar　followed　him　and　defeated　his　followers

near　Pharsalus。　Pompey　sailed　across　the　Mediterranean　and

escaped　to　Egypt。　When　he　landed　he　was　murdered　by　order

of　young　king　Ptolemy。　A　few　days　later　Caesar　arrived。

He　found　himself　caught　in　a　trap。　Both　the　Egyptians　and

the　Roman　garrison　which　had　remained　faithful　to　Pompey；

attacked　his　camp。



Fortune　was　with　Caesar。　He　succeeded　in　setting　fire　to

the　Egyptian　fleet。　Incidentally　the　sparks　of　the　burning

vessels　fell　on　the　roof　of　the　famous　library　of　Alexandria

（which　was　just　off　the　water　front；）　and　destroyed　it。　Next

he　attacked　the　Egyptian　army；　drove　the　soldiers　into　the

Nile；　drowned　Ptolemy；　and　established　a　new　government

under　Cleopatra；　the　sister　of　the　late　king。　Just　then　word

reached　him　that　Pharnaces；　the　son　and　heir　of　Mithridates；

had　gone　on　the　war…path。　Caesar　marched　northward；　defeated

Pharnaces　in　a　war　which　lasted　five　days；　sent　word　of

his　victory　to　Rome　in　the　famous　sentence　‘‘veni；　vidi；　vici；''

which　is　Latin　for　‘‘I　came；　I　saw；　I　conquered；''　and　returned

to　Egypt　where　he　fell　desperately　in　love　with　Cleopatra；　who

followed　him　to　Rome　when　he　returned　to　take　charge　of　the

government；　in　the　year　46。　He　marched　at　the　head　of　not

less　than　four　different　victory…parades；　having　won　four

different　campaigns。



Then　Caesar　appeared　in　the　Senate　to　report　upon　his

adventures；　and　the　grateful　Senate　made　him　‘‘dictator''　for

ten　years。　It　was　a　fatal　step。



The　new　dictator　made　serious　attempts　to　reform　the

Roman　state。　He　made　it　possible　for　freemen　to　become

members　of　the　Senate。　He　conferred　the　rights　of　citizenship

upon　distant　communities　as　had　been　done　in　the　early　days

of　Roman　history。　He　permitted　‘‘foreigners''　to　exercise

influence　upon　the　government。　He　reformed　the　administration

of　the　distant　provinces　which　certain　aristocratic　families

had　come　to　regard　as　their　private　possessions。　In　short　he

did　many　things　for　the　good　of　the　majority　of　the　people　but

which　made　him　thoroughly　unpopular　with　the　most　powerful

men　in　the　state。　Half　a　hundred　young　aristocrats　formed　a

plot　‘‘to　save　the　Republic。''　On　the　Ides　of　March　（the　fifteenth

of　March　according　to　that　new　calendar　which　Caesar

had　brought　with　him　from　Egypt）　Caesar　was　murdered　when

he　entered　the　Senate。　Once　more　Rome　was　without　a　master。



There　were　two　men　who　tried　to　continue　the　tradition　of

Caesar's　glory。　One　was　Antony；　his　former　secretary。　The

other　was　Octavian；　Caesar's　grand…nephew　and　heir　to　his

estate。　Octavian　remained　in　Rome；　but　Antony　went　to　Egypt

to　be　near　Cleopatra　with　whom　he　too　had　fallen　in　love；　as

seems　to　have　been　the　habit　of　Roman　generals。



A　war　broke　out　between　the　two。　In　the　battle　of　Actium；

Octavian　defeated　Antony。　Antony　killed　himself　and

Cleopatra　was　left　alone　to　face　the　enemy。　She　tried　very

hard　to　make　Octavian　her　third　Roman　conquest。　When　she

saw　that　she　could　make　no　impression　upon　this　very　proud

aristocrat；　she　killed　herself；　and　Egypt　became　a　Roman　province。



As　for　Octavian；　he　was　a　very　wise　young　man　and　he　did

not　repeat　the　mistake　of　his　famous　uncle。　He　knew　how

people　will　shy　at　words。　He　was　very　modest　in　his　demands

when　he　returned　to　Rome。　He　did　not　want　to　be　a　‘‘dictator。''

He　would　be　entirely　satisfied　with　the　title　of　‘‘the　Honourable。''

But　when　the　Senate；　a　few　years　later；　addressed

him　as　Augustusthe　Illustrioushe　did　not　object　and　a　few

years　later　the　man　in　the　street　called　him　Caesar；　or　Kaiser；

while　the　soldiers；　accustomed　to　regard　Octavian　as　their

Commander…in…chief　referred　to　him　as　the　Chief；　the　Imperator　or

Emperor。　The　Republic　had　become　an　Empire；　but　the　average

Roman　was　hardly　aware　of　the　fact。



In　14　A。D。　his　position　as　the　Absolute　Ruler　of　the

Roman　people　had　become　so　well　established　that　he　was　made

an　object　of　that　divine　worship　which　hitherto　had　been　reserved

for　the　Gods。　And　his　successors　were　true　‘‘Emperors''the

absolute　rulers　of　the　greatest　empire　the　world　had

ever　seen。



If　the　truth　be　told；　the　average　citizen　was　sick　and　tired

of　anarchy　and　disorder。　He　did　not　care　who　ruled　him　provided

the　new　master　gave　him　a　chance　to　live　quietly　and

without　the　noise　of　eternal　street　riots。　Octavian　assured　his

subjects　forty　years　of　peace。　He　had　no　desire　to　extend　the

frontiers　of　his　domains；　In　the　year　9　A。D。　he　had　contem…

plated　an　invasion　of　the　northwestern　wilderness　which　was

inhabited　by　the　Teutons。　But　Varrus；　his　general；　had　been

killed　with　all　his　men　in　the　Teutoburg　Woods；　and　after　that

the　Romans　made　no　further　attempts　to　civilise　these　wild

people。



They　concentrated　their　efforts　upon　the　gigantic　problem

of　internal　reform。　But　it　was　too　late　to　do　much　good。　Two

centuries　of　revolution　and　foreign　war　had　repeatedly　killed

the　best　men　among　the　younger　generations。　It　had　ruined

the　class　of　the　free　farmers。　It　had　introduced　slave　labor；

against　which　no　freeman　could　hope　to　compete。　It　had

turned　the　cities　into　beehives　inhabited　by　pauperized　and

unhealthy　mobs　of　runaway　peasants。　It　had　created　a　large

bureaucracypetty　officials　who　were　underpaid　and　who　were

forced　to　take　graft　in　order　to　buy　bread　and　clothing　for

their　families。　Worst　of　all；　it　had　accustomed　people　to　violence；

to　blood…shed；　to　a　barbarous　pleasure　in　the　pain　and

suffering　of　others。



Outwardly；　the　Roman　state　during　the　first　century　of　our

era　was　a　magnificent　political　structure；　so　large　that　Alexander's

empire　became　one　of　its　minor　provinces。　Underneath

this　glory　there　lived　millions　upon　millions　of　poor　and　tired

human　beings；　toiling　like　ants　who　have　built　a　nest　underneath

a　heavy　stone。　They　worked　for　the　benefit　of　some　one

else。　They　shared　their　food　with　the　animals　of　the　fields。

They　lived　in　stables。　They　died　without　hope。



It　was　the　seven　hundred　and　fifty…t