the origins of contemporary france-1-第61章

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division　of　powers；　a　code　of　laws；　tribunals；　and　legal　formalities。

At　the　bottom　of　all　these　wheels　ever　appears　the　principal　lever；

the　efficacious　instrument；　namely；　the　policeman　armed　against　the

savage；　brigand　and　madman　each　of　us　harbors；　in　repose　or　manacled；

but　always　living；　in　the　recesses　of　his　own　breast。＇16＇



On　the　contrary；　in　the　new　theory；　every　principle　promulgated；

every　precaution　taken；　every　suspicion　awaked　is　aimed　against　the

policeman。　　In　the　name　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people　all　authority

is　withdrawn　from　the　government；　every　prerogative；　every　initiative；

its　continuance　and　its　force。　　The　people；　being　sovereign　the

government　is　simply　its　clerk；　and　less　than　its　clerk；　merely　its

domestic。　　…　Between　them　〃no　contract〃　indefinite　or　at　least

enduring；　〃and　which　may　be　canceled　only　by　mutual　consent　or　the

unfaithfulness　of　one　of　the　two　parties。　　It　is　against　the　nature　of

a　political　body　for　the　sovereign　to　impose　a　law　on　himself　which　he

cannot　set　aside。〃　　…　　There　is　no　sacred　and　inviolable　charter

〃binding　a　people　to　the　forms　of　an　established　constitution。　　The

right　to　change　these　is　the　first　guarantee　of　all　rights。　　There　is

not；　and　never　can　be；　any　fundamental；　obligatory　law　for　the　entire

body　of　a　people；　not　even　the　social　contract。〃　…　　It　is　through

usurpation　and　deception　that　a　prince；　an　assembly；　and　a　body　of

magistrates　declare　themselves　representatives　of　the　people。

〃Sovereignty　is　not　to　be　represented　for　the　same　reason　that　it　is

not　to　be　ceded。　　。　　。　　。　　The　moment　a　people　gives　itself

representatives　it　is　no　longer　free；　it　exists　no　more。　　。　　。　　The

English　people　think　themselves　free　but　they　deceive　themselves；　they

are　free　only　during　an　election　of　members　of　parliament；　on　the

election　of　these　they　become　slaves　and　are　null。　　。　　。　　the　deputies　of

the　people　are　not；　nor　can　they　be；　its　representatives；　they　are

simply　its　commissioners　and　can　sign　no　binding　final　agreement。

Every　law　not　ratified　by　the　people　themselves　is　null　and　is　no

law。〃＇17＇　　〃A　body　of　laws　sanctioned　by　an　assembly　of　the　people

through　a　fixed　constitution　of　the　State　does　not　suffice；　other

fixed　and　periodical　assemblies　are　necessary　which　cannot　be

abolished　or　extended；　so　arranged　that　on　a　given　day　the　people　may

be　legitimately　convoked　by　the　law；　no　other　formal　conviction　being

requisite。　　。　　。　　The　moment　the　people　are　thus　assembled　the

jurisdiction　of　the　government　is　to　cease；　and　the　executive　power　is

to　be　suspended；〃　society　commencing　anew；　while　citizens；　restored　to

their　primitive　independence；　may　reconstitute　at　will；　for　any　period

they　determine；　the　provisional　contract　to　which　they　have　assented

only　for　a　determined　time。　　〃The　opening　of　these　assemblies；　whose

sole　object　is　to　maintain　the　social　compact；　should　always　take

place　with　two　propositions；　never　suppressed；　and　which　are　to　be

voted　on　separately；　the　first　one；　whether　the　sovereign（　people）　is

willing　to　maintain　the　actual　form　of　the　government；　the　second；

whether　the　people　are　willing　to　leave　its　administration　in　the

hands　of　those　actually　performing　its　duties。〃　　…　　Thus；　〃the　act　by

which　a　people　is　subject　to　its　chiefs　is　absolutely　only　a

commission；　a　service　in　which；　as　simple　officers　of　their　sovereign；

they　exercise　in　his　name　the　power　of　which　he　has　made　them

depositories；　and　which　he　may　modify；　limit　and　resume　at

pleasure。〃＇18＇　Not　only　does　it　always　reserve　to　itself　〃the

legislative　power　which　belongs　to　it　and　which　can　belong　only　to

it；〃　but　again；　it　delegates　and　withdraws　the　executive　power

according　to　its　fancy。　　Those　who　exercise　it　are　its　employees。　　〃　It

may　establish　and　depose　them　when　it　pleases。〃　In　relation　to　it　they

have　no　rights。　　〃It　is　not　a　matter　of　contract　with　them　but　one　of

obedience；〃　they　have　〃no　conditions〃　to　prescribe；　they　cannot　demand

of　it　the　fulfillment　of　any　engagement。　　…　　It　is　useless　to　raise　the

objection　that；　according　to　this；　every　man　of　spirit　or　of　culture

will　decline　our　offices；　and　that　our　chiefs　will　bear　the　character

of　lackeys。　　We　will　not　leave　them　the　freedom　of　accepting　or

declining　office；　we　impose　it　on　them　authoritatively。　　〃In　every　true

democracy　the　magistrature　is　not　an　advantage　but　an　onerous　burden；

not　to　be　assigned　to　one　more　than　to　another。〃　We　can　lay　hands　on

our　magistrates；　take　them　by　the　collar　and　set　them　on　their　benches

in　spite　of　themselves。　　By　fair　means　or　foul　they　are　the　working

subjects　（corvéables）　of　the　State；　in　a　lower　condition　than　a　valet

or　a　mechanic；　since　the　mechanic　does　his　work　according　to

acceptable　conditions；　and　the　discharged　valet　can　claim　his　eight

days'　notice　to　quit。　　As　soon　as　the　government　throws　off　this　humble

attitude　it　usurps；　while　constitutions　are　to　proclaim　that；　in　such

an　event；　insurrection　is　not　only　the　most　sacred　right　but　the　most

imperative　duty。　　…　The　new　theory　is　now　put　into　practice；　and　the

dogma　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people；　interpreted　by　the　crowd；　is

to　result　in　a　complete　anarchy；　up　to　the　moment　when；　interpreted　by

its　leaders；　it　produces　perfect　despotism。



IV。　　BIRTH　OF　SOCIALIST　THEORY；　ITS　TWO　SIDES。



The　second　result。　　…　The　new　theory　leads　to　despotism。　　…

Precedents　for　this　theory。　　…　Administrative　centralization。　　…　The

Utopia　of　the　Economists。　　…　Invalidity　of　preceding　rights。　　…

Collateral　associations　not　tolerated。　　…　Complete　alienation　of　the

individual　from　the　community。　　…　Rights　of　the　State　in　relation　to

property；　education　and　religion。　　…　The　State　a　Spartan　convent。



　　For　this　theory　has　two　aspects；　whereas　one　side　leads　towards

the　perpetual　demolition　of　government；　the　other　results　in　the

unlimited　dictatorship　of　the　State。　　The　new　social　contract　is　not　a

historic　pact；　like　the　English　Declaration　of　Rights　in　1688；　or　the

Dutch　federation　in　1579；　entered　into　by　actual　and　living

individuals；　admitting　acquired　situations；　groups　already　formed；

established　positions；　and　drawn　up　to　recognize；　define；　guarantee

and　complete　anterior　rights。　　Antecedent　to　the　social　contract　no

veritable　right　exist；　for　veritable　rights　are　born　solely　out　of　the

social　contract；　the　only　valid　one；　since　it　is　the　only　one　agreed

upon　between　beings　perfectly　equal　and　perfectly　free；　so　many

abstract　creatures；　so　many　species　of　mathematical　units；　all　of　the

same　value；　all　playing　the　same　part　and　whose　inequality　or

constraint　never　disturbs　the　common　understanding。　　Hence　at　the

moment　of　its　completion；　all　other　facts　are　nullified。　　Property；

family；　church；　no　ancient　institution　may　invoke　any　right　against

the　new　State。　　The　area　on　which　it　is　built　up　must　be　considered

vacant；　if　old　structures　are　partly　allowed　to　remain　it　is　only　in

its　name　and　for　its　benefit；　to　be　enclosed　within　its　barriers　and

appropriated　to　its　use；　the　entire　soil　of　humanity　is　its　property。

On　the　other　hand　it　is　not；　according　to　the　American　doctrine；　an

association　for　mutual　protection；　a　society　like　other　societies；

circumscribed　in　its　purpose；　restricted　to　its　office；　limited　in　its

powers；　and　by　which　individuals　reserving　to　themselves　the　better

portion　of　their　property　and　persons；　assess　each　other　for　the

maintenance　of　an　army；　a　police；　tribunals；　highways；　schools；　in

short；　the　major　instruments　of　public　safety　and　utility；　at　the　same

time　withholding　the　remainder　of　local；　general；　spiritual　and

material　services　in　favor　of　private　initiative　and　of　spontaneous

associations　that　may　arise　as　occasion　or　necessity　calls　for　them。

Our　State　is　not　to　be　a　simple　utilitarian　machine；　a　convenient；

handy　implement；　of　which　the　workman　avails　himself　without

abandoning　the　free　use　of　his　hand；　or　the　simultaneous　use　of　other

implements。　　Being　elder　born；　the　only　son　and　sole　representative　of

Reason　it　must；　to　ensure　its　sway；　leave　nothing　beyond　its　grasp。　　…

In　this　respect　the　old　régime　paves　the　way　for　the　new　one；　while

the　established　system　inclines　minds　beforehand　to　the　budding

theory。　　Through　administrative　centralization　the　State　already；　for　a

long　time；　has　its　hands　everywhere。＇19＇



〃You　must　know；〃　says　Law　to　the　Marquis　d'Argenson；　〃that　the

kingdom　of　France　is　governed　by　thirty　intendants。　　You　have　neither

parliaments；　assemblies　or　governors；　simply　thirty　masters　of

requests；　provincial　clerks；　on　whom　depends　the　happiness　or　misery；

the　fruitfulness　or　sterility　of　these　provinces。〃



The　king；　in　fact；　sovereign；　father；　and　universal　guardian；

manages　local　affairs　through　his　delegates；　and　intervenes　in　private

affairs　through　his　favors　or　lettres…de…cachet（royal　orders　of

imprisonment）。　　Such　an　example　and　such　a　course　followed　for　fifty

years　excites　the　imagination。　　No　other　instrument　is　more　useful　for

carrying　large　reforms　out　at　one　time。　　Hence；　far　from　restricting

the　central　power　the　economists　are　desirous　of　extending　its　action。

Instead　of　setting　up　new　dikes　against　it　they　interest　themselves

only　in　destroying　what　is　left　of　the　old　dikes　still　interfering

with　it。　　〃The　system　of　counter…forces　in　a　government；〃　says　Quesnay

and　his　disciples；　〃is　a　fatal　idea　。　　。　　。　　The　speculations　on　which

the　system　of　counter…balance　is　founded　are　chimerical　。　　。　　。　　。　　Let

the　government　have　a　full　comprehension　of　its　duties　and　be　left

free。　　。　　。　　The　State　must　govern　according　to　the　essential　laws　of

order；　and　in　this　case　unlimited　power　is　requisite。〃　On　the　approach

of　the　Revolution　the　same　doctrine　reappears；　except　in　the

substitution　of　one　term　for　another　term。　　In　the　place　of　the

sovereignty　of　the　king　the　〃Contrat　social〃　substitutes　the

sovereignty　of　the　people。　　The　latter；　however；　is　much　more　absolute

than　the　former；　and；　in　the　democratic　convent　which　Rousseau

constructs；　on　Spartan　and　Roman　model；　the　individual　is　nothing　and

the　State　everything。



In　effect；　〃the　clauses　of　the　social　contract　reduce　themselves　to

one；　namely；　the　total　transfer　of　each　associate　with　all　his　rights

to　the　community。〃＇20＇　Every　one　surrenders　himself　entirely；　〃just　as

he　stands；　he　and　all　his　forces；　of　which　his　property　forms　a

portion。〃　There　is　no　exception　nor　reservation；　whatever　he　may　have

been　previously　and　whatever　may　have　belonged　to　him　is　no　longer　his

own。　　Henceforth　whatever　he　becomes　or　whatever　he　may　possess

devolves　on　him　only　through　the　delegation　of　the　social　body；　the

universal　proprietor　and　absolute　master。　　All　rights　must　be　vested　in

the　State　and　none　in　the　individual；　otherwise　there　would　be

litigation　between　them；　and；　〃as　there　is　no　common　superior　to

decide　between　them〃