lecture ii-第4章

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want　of　mental　power　the　oldest　member　may　be　superseded　by
another；　sometimes　elected　by　the　whole　community。　The　name　given
to　the　house…elder　is　bolschack；　which　means　the　greatest　in
power。　His　authority　and　functions　perfectly　correspond　to　those
belonging；　in　a　Servian　zadruga；　to　the　so…called　〃domachin。〃
Like　the　domachin；　he　is　assisted　in　the　difficult　task　of
governing　the　female　part　of　the　house　community　by　some　aged
woman；　known　by　the　name　of　〃bolschoucha〃　（the　greatest　woman）；
who　is　not　always　his　wife。　
　　　　It　would　be　a　gross　error　to　look　upon　the　house…elder　of　a
Russian　undivided　family　as　holding　the　same　position　as　the
Roman　paterfamilias。　The　house…elder　has　neither　the　authority
nor　the　amount　of　independence　enjoyed　by　the　paterfamilias　in
the　administration　of　the　family　fortune。　The　Russian
house…elder；　like　the　Servian　domachin；　is　but　primus　inter
pares。　All　the　grown…up　members　of　the　community　constitute　a
sort　of　family　council；　whose　advice　must　be　regularly　asked　in
matters　of　importance。　The　domachin　has　no　right　to　dispose　of
the　family　possessions　without　the　unanimous　consent　of　all　the
persons　for　whom　he　acts。　When　I　say　all；　I　mean　of　course　only
the　grown…up　members；　women　as　well　as　men。　The　women's　opinion；
though　of　less　importance　than　the　men's；　is　not　to　be
disregarded；　the　more　so　on　account　of　the　influence　which　they
exercise　on　their　husbands。　
　　　　The　functions　of　the　house…elder　are　of　very　various　kinds。
We　must　mention　first　of　all　his　exclusive　right　to　represent　the
community　before　the　executive　and　judicial　authorities　of　the
village　and　district　（selo　i　volost）。　It　is　he　who　regularly
appears　in　the　courts；　either　to　answer　the　complaints　against
the　community；　or　to　insist　on　the　recognition　of　rights　which
have　been　violated。　It　is　to　him　also　that　the　Government
officials　address　their　demand　for　the　speedy　payment　of　the
taxes。　It　is　his　duty　to　attend　to　the　execution　of　the　law
concerning　military　service；　and　to　the　carrying　out　of　the
different　orders　issued　by　the　local　and　provincial　authorities。　
　　　　As　to　the　duties　which　the　domachin　has　to　perform　in
connection　with　the　interior　administration　of　the　household；
they　are　of　two　different　kinds：　they　concern　either　the　persons
who　compose　the　house　community；　or　the　undivided　property　owned
by　them。　All　disputes　arising　between　co…partners　are　settled　by
the　house…elder；　who　is　regularly　assisted　in　such　cases　by　the
family　council。　His　interference　in　the　relations　between　husband
and　wife；　between　parents　and　children；　sometimes　exerts　a　highly
beneficial　influence；　in　so　far　as　it　prevents　cases　of　gross
abuse　in　the　exercise　of　marital　and　paternal　power；　but　it　often
happens　on　the　other　hand　that　disputes　between　married　couples
are　embittered　by　the　partiality　of　the　house…elder　for　one　or
other　party。　On　more　than　one　occasion　husbands　have　been　known
to　inflict　severe　punishment　on　their　wives　because　they　were
ordered　to　do　so　by　the　head　of　the　community；　instances；　too；
are　very　frequent　in　which　the　wife；　encouraged　by　the　support　of
the　house…elder；　disregards　the　rights　of　her　husband；　and　lives
in　almost　open　adultery　with　the　person　whose　chief　duty　ought　to
consist　in　the　maintenance　of　a　high　moral　standard　amongst　the
persons　over　whom　he　exercises　authority。　
　　　　The　house…elder　has　also；　if　not　a　casting　vote；　at　least　a
consultative　voice　in　such　matters　as　the　choice　of　a　wife；　or
the　giving　of　a　daughter　in　marriage。　As　the　amount　of　the　dowry
is　always　fixed　by　the　family　council；　presided　over　by　its
chief；　his　decision　very　often　settles　the　question　as　to　the
acceptance　or　refusal　of　the　offer　of　marriage。　It　is　also　the
duty　of　the　house…elder　to　find　occupation　for　the　unemployed
members　of　the　household。　If　the　community　is　too　large　to　allow
of　all　its　members　being　employed　in　agricultural　labour；　the
family　finds　it　advantageous　to　permit　a　certain　number　of　its
members　to　seek　their　fortunes　abroad；　either　in　private　service
or　as　small　traders　or　pedlars；　travelling　about　the　country　with
packs　on　their　backs。　Such　petty　hawkers；　verv　numerous　in　our
Eastern　provinces；　are　known　in　Russia　under　the　various　names　of
〃ofeni；〃　〃chodebocschiki；〃　〃korobhniki；〃　and　〃prosoli。〃　They
render　a　real　service　to　the　country　population；　which；　at　least
in　places　far　distant　from　railways　and　markets；　would　without
them　have　no　means　of　procuring　the　most　simple　necessaries　of
life。　
　　　　Young　orphans　find　in　the　person　of　the　house…elder　their
legal　guardian；　their　moral　and　mental　education　depends　solely
on　him；　it　is　be　who　sends　them　to　school；　finds　employment　for
them　in　the　fields；　or　apprentices　them　to　the　different　village
artisans　to　learn　a　trade　by　which　to　earn　a　future　livelihood。
　　　　As　the　administration　of　the　family　fortune；　as　I　have
already　said；　falls　on　the　house…elder；　he　makes　all　arrangements
that　are　needful　to　secure　that　every　kind　of　agricultural　labour
shall　be　properly　done；　assigning　to　each　his　daily　share　in　the
ploughing；　harrowing；　and　sowing　of　the　fields；　thrashing　of　the
corn；　and　such　like　occupations。　If　the　number　of　hands　of　which
the　family　can　dispose　is　not　sufficient　to　answer　all　its
requirements；　he　hires　others　to　help　them。　When　the　time　comes
for　the　exchange　of　harvest　produce　for　such　articles　as　the
peasants　may　need；　it　is　again　the　business　of　the　house…elder　to
sign　contracts　of　sale　or　exchange。　Those　under　his　charge　have
in　such　cases　the　right　to　control　actions　and　to　demand　a　full
account　of　all　the　moneys　received　or　paid　by　him。　This　control
is　particularly　useful　on　those　somewhat　rare　occasions　when；　in
consequence　of　a　series　of　bad　harvests；　the　family　is　obliged　to
dispose　of　a　part　of　its　estate。　On　such　occasions　the　whole
family　has　a　voice　in　the　selection　of　the　purchases。　Their
unanimous　consent；　plainly　expressed　in　the　act　of　sale；　is
necessary　in　order　to　render　it　legal。　
　　　　The　resources　by　which　the　family　provides　for　all　its
requirements　are　of　different　kinds：　some　are　derived　from　the
lands　it　owns；　others　from　the　private　earnings　of　its　members。
Widely　separated　though　some　of　its　members　may　be　from　the
family；　the　travelling　pedlar；　the　labourer　who　has　hired　himself
out　on　some　distant　farm；　the　soldier　and　sailor　fighting　in　some
foreign　country　or　sailing　to　some　distant　land；　nevertheless
they　all　look　upon　it　a　duty　to　allow　their　family　to　share　in
their　earnings。　On　its　part　the　House　Community　does　not　object
to　maintain　the　wife　and　children　of　an　absent　member；　or　to　pay
the　amount　of　his　yearly　taxes。　The　communistic　character　of　the
great　Russian　family　is　shown　by　the　ease　with　which　the
household　gets　its　members　who　are　temporarily　separated　from　it
to　pay　over　to　it　the　gains　which　they　make。　These；　as　a　rule；
make　no　claim　to　keep　their　earnings　for　themselves。　The　peculium
castrense　and　quasi　castrense；　formerly　known　to　the　ancient
Romans；　appear　still　to　exist　among　the　members　of　the　Russian
house　communities　of　the　present　day。　if　a　movement　in　favour　of
the　establishment　of　private　property　can　be　detected　it　is　only
in　the　private　earnings　made　by　the　women　and　girls　in　their
leisure　hours。　These　earnings　accumulated　hour　by　hour　and　day　by
day　form；　as　a　rule；　the　principal　part　of　the　future　dowry；　the
father　and　mother　making　but　a　small　addition　to　the　sum　got
together　by　the　industry　and　thrift　of　a　maiden　who　for　many
years　has　been　preparing　for　her　marriage。　The　Undivided
Household　of　Great　Russia　may　in　this　respect　be　compared　to　the
house　community　of　India；　for　it　also　secures　to　an　unmarried
woman　the　right　of　providing　a　peculium　apart；　a　sort　of
independent　fortune；　the　so…called　〃stridhana；〃　by　the
accumulation　of　the　small　savings　she　regularly　makes　by　needle
work。　
　　　　Now　that　I　have　traced；　though　only　in　its　general　outlines；
that　peculiar　institution　known　in　Russia　under　the　rather　vague
term　of　〃The　Great　Family；〃　let　me　call　your　attention　to　the
advantages　and　disadvantages　which　this　institution　presents。　Its
great　merit　certainly　consists　in　the　fact　that　it　develops　to　a
far　larger　extent　than　the　small　families　of　our　days　the　feeling
of　mutual　dependence　and　joint　relationship　without　which　no
system　of　social　reform　can　have　any　chance　of　success。
Possessing　as　they　do　no　other　but　common　property　and　having　an
equal　share　in　all　the　material　enjoyments　of　fortune；　the
members　of　these　communistic　bodies　escape　from　the　disheartening
influence　of　economic　competition。　
　　　　The　conditions　of　this　existence　necessarily　develop　in　them
all　the　consciousness　of　mutual　responsibility；　and　the
conviction　that　without　reliance　on　one　another　they　cannot
overcome　the　dangers　and　difficulties　of　life。　It　would　be　a
study　of　high　psychological　interest　to　analyse　the　character　of
a　people　which　had　grown　up　under　such　conditions；　and　to　show
how　far　the　inborn　selfish　instincts　of　man　have　been　moderated
by　the　softening　influence　of　a　state　of　society　which；　to　a
certain　extent；　does　away　with　the　necessity　for　an　uninterrupted
struggle　for　life。　The　Russian　novelists；　conscious　of　what　might
properly　be　expected　of　them；　have　more　than　once　tried　to　give　a
picture　of　the　Russian　〃moujik〃　who　is　so　unlike　the　French
〃paysan；〃　that　petty　owner　of　a　small　piece　of　land　jealously
watched　and　guarded　from　the　encroachments　of　his　neighbour　and
from　those　of　the　State。　
　　　　The　life…like　characters　drawn　by　our　great　author；
Tourgenieff；　in　his　vivid　〃Sketches　of　a　Sportsman〃　are；　I
believe；　the　best　illustrations　that　have　ever　been　given　of　the
thoughts　and　feelings　of　our　people　…a　people　who；　though　rough
and　rude；　yet　enjoy　the　great　blessing　of　being　unconscious　of
the　need　of　securing　their　individual　happiness　by　a　constant
struggle　and　by　the　pursuit　of　egotistic　ends。　The　reliance　shown
by　the　Russian　peasant　on　the　community；　his　conviction　that　the
mir　is　always　just　and　reasonable；　and　that　truth　is　nowhere　to
be　found　but　in　the　unanimous　opinion　of　the　people　have
certainly　developed　estimable　qualities　and　have　helped　to　make
the　Russian　moujik　a　communist。　That　this　is　really　the　case；　and
that　his　character　has　been　modified　by　the　system　of　the　Great
Family；　is　proved　by　the　fact　that　wherever　a　division　of　the
common　property　had　taken　place；　wherever　the　peasant　has　been
reduced　by　his　own　will　to　depend　entirely　on　his　personal
industry　for　his　success　in　life；　he　has　become　the　pushing；
unscrupulous　man　whom　the　American　novelist　has　rendered　so
familiar　to　us。　Two　great　Russian　writers；　Mr　Ouspensky　and　Mr
Slatovraczky；　both　equally　unknown　to　the　English　public　although
their　popularity　amongst　my　countrymen　almost　equals　that　of
Tourgenieffor　Tolstoi；　have　recently　published　two　widely
different　accounts　of　the　social　and　psychological　condition　of
our　peasants。　Mr　Ouspensky　has　spoken　of　the　peasant　as　a
creature　whose　ethics　almost　entirely　depend　upon　the　regular
performance　of　agricultural　labour。　As　long　as　he　remains　a
proprietor　his　morals　are　sound；　but