what is property-第66章

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　protected　and　consolidated。

〃Evil；　when　carried　too　far；〃　says　a　learned　jurist；　〃cures　itself；　and　the　political　innovation　which　aims　to　increase　the　power　of　the　State；　finally　succumbs　to　the　effects　of　its　own　work。　　The　Germans；　to　secure　their　independence；　chose　chiefs；　and　soon　they　were　oppressed　by　their　kings　and　noblemen。　　The　monarchs　surrounded　themselves　with　volunteers；　in　order　to　control　the　freemen；　and　they　found　themselves　dependent　upon　their　proud　vassals。　　The　_missi　dominici_　were　sent　into　the　provinces　to　maintain　the　power　of　the　emperors；　and　to　protect　the　people　from　the　oppressions　of　the　noblemen；　and　not　only　did　they　usurp　the　imperial　power　to　a　great　extent；　but　they　dealt　more　severely　with　the　inhabitants。　　The　freemen　became　vassals；　in　order　to　get　rid　of　military　service　and　court　duty；　and　they　were　immediately　involved　in　all　the　personal　quarrels　of　their　seigniors；　and　compelled　to　do　jury　duty　in　their　courts。　。　。　。　　The　kings　protected　the　cities　and　the　communes；　in　the　hope　of　freeing　them　from　the　yoke　of　the　grand　vassals；　and　of　rendering　their　own　power　more　absolute；　and　those　same　communes　have；　in　several　European　countries；　procured　the　establishment　of　a　constitutional　power；　are　now　holding　royalty　in　check；　and　are　giving　rise　to　a　universal　desire　for　political　reform。〃Meyer：　Judicial　Institutions　of　Europe。


In　recapitulation。

What　was　feudalism？　　A　confederation　of　the　grand　seign　iors　against　the　villeins；　and　against　the　king。＇1＇　What　is　constitutional　government？　　A　confederation　of　the　bourgeoisie　against　the　laborers；　and　against　the　king。＇2＇

＇1＇　　Feudalism　was；　in　spirit　and　in　its　providential　destiny；　a　long　protest　of　the　human　personality　against　the　monkish　communism　with　which　Europe；　in　the　middle　ages；　was　overrun。　　After　the　orgies　of　Pagan　selfishness；　societycarried　to　the　opposite　extreme　by　the　Christian　religionrisked　its　life　by　unlimited　self…denial　and　absolute　indifference　to　the　pleasures　of　the　world。　　Feudalism　was　the　balance…weight　which　saved　Europe　from　the　combined　influence　of　the　religious　communities　and　the　Manlchean　sects　which　had　sprung　up　since　the　fourth　century　under　different　names　and　in　different　countries。　　Modern　civilization　is　indebted　to　feudalism　for　the　definitive　establishment　of　the　person；　of　marriage；　of　the　family；　and　of　country。　　（See；　on　this　subject；　Guizot；　〃History　of　Civilization　in　Europe。〃）

＇2＇　　This　was　made　evident　in　July；　1830；　and　the　years　which　followed　it；　when　the　electoral　bourgeoisie　effected　a　revolution　in　order　to　get　control　over　the　king；　and　suppressed　the　emeutes　in　order　to　restrain　the　people。　　The　bourgeoisie；　through　the　jury；　the　magistracy；　its　position　in　the　army；　and　its　municipal　despotism；　governs　both　royalty　and　the　people。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which；　more　than　any　other　class；　is　conservative　and　retrogressive。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which　makes　and　unmakes　ministries。　　It　is　the　bourgeoisie　which　has　destroyed　the　influence　of　the　Upper　Chamber；　and　which　will　dethrone　the　King　whenever　he　shall　become　unsatisfactory　to　it。　　It　is　to　please　the　　bourgeoisie　　that　royalty　makes　itself　unpopular。　　It　is　the　　bourgeoisie　which　is　troubled　at　the　hopes　of　the　people；　and　which　hinders　reform。　　The　journals　of　the　bourgeoisie　are　the　ones　which　preach　morality　and　religion　to　us；　while　reserving　scepticism　and　indifference　for　themselves；　which　attack　personal　government；　and　favor　the　denial　of　the　electoral　privilege　to　those　who　have　no　property。　　The　bourgeoisie　will　accept　any　thing　rather　than　the　emancipation　of　the　proletariat。　　As　soon　as　it　thinks　its　privileges　threatened；　it　will　unite　with　royalty；　and　who　does　not　know　that　at　this　very　moment　these　two　antagonists　have　suspended　their　quarrels？　。　。　。　　It　has　been　a　question　of　property。




How　did　feudalism　end？　　In　the　union　of　the　communes　and　the　royal　authority。　　How　will　the　bourgeoisie　aristocracy　end？　　In　the　union　of　the　proletariat　and　the　sovereign　power。

What　was　the　immediate　result　of　the　struggle　of　the　communes　and　the　king　against　the　seigniors？　　The　monarchical　unity　of　Louis　XIV。　　What　will　be　the　result　of　the　struggle　of　the　proletariat　and　the　sovereign　power　combined　against　the　bourgeoisie？　　The　absolute　unity　of　the　nation　and　the　government。

It　remains　to　be　seen　whether　the　nation；　one　and　supreme；　will　be　represented　in　its　executive　and　central　power　by　ONE；　by　FIVE；　by　ONE　HUNDRED；　or　ONE　THOUSAND；　that　is；　it　remains　to　be　seen；　whether　the　royalty　of　the　barricades　intends　to　maintain　itself　by　the　people；　or　without　the　people；　and　whether　Louis　Philippe　wishes　his　reign　to　be　the　most　famous　in　all　history。

I　have　made　this　statement　as　brief；　but　at　the　same　time　as　accurate　as　I　could；　neglecting　facts　and　details；　that　I　might　give　the　more　attention　to　the　economical　relations　of　society。　　For　the　study　of　history　is　like　the　study　of　the　human　organism；　just　as　the　latter　has　its　system；　its　organs；　and　its　functions；　which　can　be　treated　separately；　so　the　former　has　its　ensemble；　its　instruments；　and　its　causes。　　Of　course　I　do　not　pretend　that　the　principle　of　property　is　a　complete　resume　of　all　the　social　forces；　but；　as　in　that　wonderful　machine　which　we　call　our　body；　the　harmony　of　the　whole　allows　us　to　draw　a　general　conclusion　from　the　consideration　of　a　single　function　or　organ；　so；　in　discussing　historical　causes；　I　have　been　able　to　reason　with　absolute　accuracy　from　a　single　order　of　facts；　certain　as　I　was　of　the　perfect　correlation　which　exists　between　this　special　order　and　universal　history。　　As　is　the　property　of　a　nation；　so　is　its　family；　its　marriage；　its　religion；　its　civil　and　military　organization；　and　its　legislative　and　judicial　institutions。　　History；　viewed　from　this　standpoint；　is　a　grand　and　sublime　psychological　study。

Well；　sir；　in　writing　against　property；　have　I　done　more　than　quote　the　language　of　history？　　I　have　said　to　modern　society；　the　daughter　and　heiress　of　all　preceding　societies；_Age　guod　agis：_　complete　the　task　which　for　six　thousand　years　you　have　been　executing　under　the　inspiration　and　by　the　command　of　God；　hasten　to　finish　your　journey；　turn　neither　to　the　right　nor　the　left；　but　follow　the　road　which　lies　before　you。　　You　seek　reason；　law；　unity；　and　discipline；　but　hereafter　you　can　find　them　only　by　stripping　off　the　veils　of　your　infancy；　and　ceasing　to　follow　instinct　as　a　guide。　　Awaken　your　sleeping　conscience；　open　your　eyes　to　the　pure　light　of　reflection　and　science；　behold　the　phantom　which　troubled　your　dreams；　and　so　long　kept　you　in　a　state　of　unutterable　anguish。　　Know　thyself；　O　long…deluded　society＇1＇　know　thy　enemy！　。　。　。　　And　I　have　denounced　property。

We　often　hear　the　defenders　of　the　right　of　domain　quote　in　defence　of　their　views　the　testimony　of　nations　and　ages。　　We　can　judge；　from　what　has　just　been　said；　how　far　this　historical　argument　conforms　to　the　real　facts　and　the　conclusions　of　science。

To　complete　this　apology；　I　must　examine　the　various　theories。

Neither　politics；　nor　legislation；　nor　history；　can　be　explained　and　understood；　without　a　positive　theory　which　defines　their　elements；　and　discovers　their　laws；　in　short；　without　a

philosophy。　　Now；　the　two　principal　schools；　which　to　this　day　divide　the　attention　of　the　world；　do　not　satisfy　this　condition。

The　first；　essentially　PRACTICAL　in　its　character；　confined　to　a　statement　of　facts；　and　buried　in　learning；　cares　very　little　by　what　laws　humanity　develops　itself。　　To　it　these　laws　are　the　secret　of　the　Almighty；　which　no　one　can　fathom　without　a　commission　from　on　high。　　In　applying　the　facts　of　history　to　government；　this　school　does　not　reason；　it　does　not　anticipate；　it　makes　no　comparison　of　the　past　with　the　present；　in　order　to　predict　the　future。　　In　its　opinion；　the　lessons　of　experience　teach　us　only　to　repeat　old　errors；　and　its　whole　philosophy　consists　in　perpetually　retracing　the　tracks　of　antiquity；　instead　of　going　straight　ahead　forever　in　the　direction　in　which　they　point。

The　second　school　may　be　called　either　FATALISTIC　or　PANTHEISTIC。　　To　it　the　movements　of　empires　and　the　revolutions　of　humanity　are　the　manifestations；　the　incarnations；　of　the　Almighty。　　The　human　race；　identified　with　the　divine　essence；　wheels　in　a　circle　of　appearances；　informations；　and　destructions；　which　necessarily　excludes　the　idea　of　absolute　truth；　and　destroys　providence　and　liberty。

Corresponding　to　these　two　schools　of　history；　there　are　two　schools　of　jurisprudence；　similarly　opposed；　and　possessed　of　the　same　peculiarities。

1。　The　practical　and　conventional　school；　to　which　the　law　is　always　a　creation　of　the　legislator；　an　expression　of　his　will；　a　privilege　which　he　condescends　to　grant；in　short；　a　gratuitous　affirmation　to　be　regarded　as　judicious　and　legitimate；　no　matter　what　it　declares。

2。　The　fatalistic　and　pantheistic　school；　sometimes　called　the　historical　school；　which　opposes　the　despotism　of　the　first；　and　maintains　that　law；　like　literature　and　religion；　is　always　the　expression　of　society；its　manifestation；　its　form；　the　external　realization　of　its　mobile　spirit　and　its　ever…changing　inspirations。

Each　of　these　schools；　denying　the　absolute；　rejects　thereby　all　positive　and　a　priori　philosophy。

Now；　it　is　evident　that　the　theories　of　these　two　schools；　whatever　view　we　take　of　them；　are　utterly　unsatisfactory：　for；　opposed；　they　form　no　dilemma；that　is；　if　one　is　false；　it　does　not　follow　that　the　other　is　true；　and；　united；　they　do　not　constitute　the　truth；　since　they　disregard　the　absolute；　without　which　there　is　no　truth。　　They　are　respectively　a　THESIS　and　an　ANTITHESIS。　　There　remains　to　be　found；　then；　a　SYNTHESIS；　which；　predicating　the　absolute；　justifies　the　will　of　the　legislator；　explains　the　variations　of　the　law；　annihilates　the　theory　of　the　circular　movement　of　humanity；　and　demonstrates　its　progress。

The　legists；　by　the　very　nature　of　their　studies　and　in　spite　of　their　obstinate　prejudices；　have　been　led　irresistibly　to　suspect　that　the　absolute　in　the　science　of　law　is　not　as　chimerical　as　is　commonly　supposed；　and　this　suspicion　arose　from　their　comparison　of　the　various　relations　which　legislators　have　been　called　upon　to　regulate。

M。　Laboulaye；　the　laureate　of　the　Institute；　begins　his　〃History　of　Property〃　with　these　words：


〃While　the　law　of　contract；　which　regulates　only　the　mutual　interests　of　men；　has　not　varied　for　centuries　（except　in　certain　forms　which　relate　more　to　the　proof　than　to　the　character　of　the　obligation）；　the　civil　law　of　property；　which　regulates　the　mutual　relations　of　citizens；　has　undergone　several　radical　changes；　and　has　kept　pace　in　its　variations　with　all　the　vicissitudes　of　society。　　The　law　of　contract；　which　holds　essentially　to　those　principles　of　eternal　justice　which　are　engraven　upon　the　depths　of　the　human　heart；　is　the　immutable　element　of　jurisprudence；　and；　in　a　certain　sense；　its　philosophy。　　Property；　on　the　contrary；　is　the　variable　element　of　jurisprudence；　its　history；　its　policy。〃


Marvellous！　　There　is　in　law；　and　consequently　in　politics；　something　variable　and　something　invaria