the sequel of appomattox-第12章

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pulous　officeholders；　for　〃the　men　who　go　down　there　and　become　your　overseers　and　Negro　drivers　will　be　your　broken…down　politicians　and　your　dilapidated　preachers；　that　description　of　men　who　are　too　lazy　to　work　and　just　a　little　too　honest　to　steal。〃

As　the　war　drew　to　a　close；　the　advocates　of　a　policy　of　consolidation　in　Negro　affairs　prevailed；　and　on　March　3；　1865；　an　act　was　approved　creating　in　the　War　Department　a　Bureau　of　Refugees；　Freedmen；　and　Abandoned　Lands。　This　Bureau　was　to　continue　for　one　year　after　the　close　of　the　war；　and　it　was　to　control　all　matters　relating　to　freedmen　and　refugees；　that　is；　Unionists　who　had　been　driven　out　of　the　South。　Food；　shelter；　and　clothing　were　to　be　given　to　the　needy；　and　abandoned　or　confiscated　property　was　to　be　used　for　or　leased　to　freedmen。　At　the　head　of　the　Bureau　was　to　be　a　commissioner　with　an　assistant　commissioner　for　each　of　the　Southern　States。　These　officials　and　other　employees　must　take　the　〃ironclad〃　oath。

It　was　planned　that　the　Bureau　should　have　a　brief　existence；　but　the　institution　and　its　wards　became　such　important　factors　in　politics　that　on　July　16；　1866；　after　a　struggle　with　the　President；　Congress　passed　an　act　over　his　veto　amplifying　the　powers　of　the　Bureau　and　extending　it　for　two　years　longer。　This　continuation　of　the　Bureau　was　due　to　many　things：　to　a　belief　that　former　slaveholders　were　not　to　be　trusted　in　dealing　with　the　Negroes；　to　the　baneful　effect　of　the　〃Black　Laws〃　upon　Northern　public　opinion；　to　the　struggle　between　the　President　and　Congress　over　reconstruction；　and　to　the　foresight　of　radical　politicians　who　saw　in　the　institution　an　instrument　for　the　political　instruction　of　the　blacks　in　the　proper　doctrines。

The　new　law　was　supplementary　to　the　Act　of　1865；　but　its　additional　provisions　merely　endorsed　what　the　Bureau　was　already　doing。　It　authorized　the　issue　of　medical　supplies；　confirmed　certain　sales　of　land　to　Negroes；　and　provided　that　the　promises　which　Sherman　made　in　1865　to　the　Sea　Island　Negroes　should　be　carried　out　as　far　as　possible　and　that　no　lands　occupied　by　blacks　should　be　restored　to　the　owners　until　the　crops　of　1866　were　gathered；　it　directed　the　Bureau　to　cooperate　with　private　charitable　and　benevolent　associations；　and　it　authorized　the　use　or　sale　for　school　purposes　of　all　confiscated　property；　and　finally　it　ordered　that　the　civil　equality　of　the　Negro　be　upheld　by　the　Bureau　and　its　courts　when　state　courts　refused　to　accept　the　principle。　By　later　laws　the　existence　of　the　Bureau　was　extended　to　January　1；　1869；　in　the　unreconstructed　States；　but　its　educational　and　financial　activities　were　continued　until　June　20；　1872。

The　chief　objections　to　the　Bureau　from　the　conservative　Northern　point　of　view　were　summed　up　in　the　President's　veto　messages。　The　laws　creating　it　were　based；　he　asserted；　on　the　theory　that　a　state　of　war　still　existed；　there　was　too　great　a　concentration　of　power　in　the　hands　of　a　few　individuals　who　could　not　be　held　responsible；　with　such　a　large　number　of　agents　ignorant　of　the　country　and　often　working　for　their　own　advantage　injustice　would　inevitably　result；　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　the　Negro　everywhere　had　a　status　in　court；　arbitrary　tribunals　were　established；　without　jury；　without　regular　procedure　or　rules　of　evidence；　and　without　appeal；　the　provisions　in　regard　to　abandoned　lands　amounted　to　confiscation　without　a　hearing；　the　Negro；　who　must　in　the　end　work　out　his　own　salvation；　and　who　was　protected　by　the　demand　for　his　labor；　would　be　deluded　into　thinking　his　future　secure　without　further　effort　on　his　part；　although　nominally　under　the　War　Department；　the　Bureau　was　not　subject　to　military　control；　it　was　practically　a　great　political　machine；　and；　finally；　the　states　most　concerned　were　not　represented　in　Congress。

The　Bureau　was　soon　organized　in　all　the　former　slaveholding　States　except　Delaware；　with　general　headquarters　in　Washington　and　state　headquarters　at　the　various　capitals。　General　O。　O。　Howard；　who　was　appointed　commissioner；　was　a　good　officer；　softhearted；　honest；　pious；　and　frequently　referred　to　as　〃the　Christian　soldier。〃　He　was　fair…minded　and　not　disposed　to　irritate　the　Southern　whites　unnecessarily；　but　he　was　rather　suspicious　of　their　intentions　toward　the　Negroes；　and　he　was　a　believer　in　the　righteousness　of　the　Freedmen's　Bureau。　He　was　not　a　good　business　man；　and　he　was　not　beyond　the　reach　of　politicians。　At　one　time　he　was　seriously　disturbed　in　his　duties　by　the　buzzing　of　the　presidential　bee　in　his　bonnet。　The　members　of　his　staff　were　not　of　his　moral　stature；　and　several　of　them　were　connected　with　commercial　and　political　enterprises　which　left　their　motives　open　to　criticism。

The　assistant　commissioners　were；　as　a　rule；　general　officers　of　the　army；　though　a　few　were　colonels　and　chaplains。*　Nearly　half　of　them　had　during　the　war　been　associated　with　the　various　attempts　to　handle　the　Negro　problem；　and　it　was　these　men　who　shaped　the　organization　of　the　Bureau。　While　few　of　them　were　immediately　acceptable　to　the　Southern　whites；　only　ten　of　them　proved　seriously　objectionable　on　account　of　personality；　character；　or　politics。　Among　the　most　able　should　be　mentioned　Generals　Schofield；　Swayne；　Fullerton；　Steedman；　and　Fessenden；　and　Colonel　John　Eaton。　The　President　had　little　or　no　control　over　the　appointment　or　discipline　of　the　officials　and　agents　of　the　Bureau；　except　possibly　by　calling　some　of　the　higher　army　officers　back　to　military　service。

*　They　numbered　eleven　at　first　and　fourteen　after　July　1866；　and　were　changed　so　often　that　fifty；　in　all；　served　in　this　rank　before　January　1；　1869；　when　the　Bureau　was　practically　discontinued。


As　a　result　of　General　Grant's　severe　criticism　of　the　arrangement　which　removed　the　Bureau　from　control　by　the　military　establishment；　the　military　commander　was　in　a　few　instances　also　appointed　assistant　commissioner。　Each　assistant　commissioner　was　aided　by　a　headquarters　staff　and　had　under　his　jurisdiction　in　each　state　various　district；　county；　and　local　agents；　with　a　special　corps　of　school　officials；　who　were　usually　teachers　and　missionaries　belonging　to　religious　and　charitable　societies。　The　local　agents　were　recruited　from　the　members　of　the　Veteran　Reserve　Corps；　the　subordinate　officers　and　non…commissioned　officers　of　the　army；　mustered…out　soldiers；　officers　of　Negro　troops；　preachers；　teachers；　and　Northern　civilians　who　had　come　South。　As　a　class　these　agents　were　not　competent　persons　to　guide　the　blacks　in　the　ways　of　liberty　or　to　arbitrate　differences　between　the　races。　There　were　many　exceptions；　but　the　Southern　view　as　expressed　by　General　Wade　Hampton　had　only　too　much　foundation：　〃There　MAY　be；〃　he　said；　〃an　honest　man　connected　with　the　Bureau。〃　John　Minor　Botts；　a　Virginian　who　had　remained　loyal　to　the　Union；　asserted　that　many　of　the　agents　were　good　men　who　did　good　work　but　that　trouble　resulted　from　the　ignorance　and　fanaticism　of　others。　The　minority　members　of　the　Ku　Klux　Committee　condemned　the　agents　as　being　〃generally　of　a　class　of　fanatics　without　character　or　responsibility。〃

The　chief　activities　of　the　Bureau　included　the　following　five　branches：　relief　work　for　both　races；　the　regulation　of　Negro　labor；　the　administration　of　justice　in　cases　concerning　Negroes；　the　management　of　abandoned　and　confiscated　property；　and　the　support　of　schools　for　the　Negroes。

The　relief　work　which　was　carried　on　for　more　than　four　years　consisted　of　caring　for　sick　Negroes　who　were　within　reach　of　the　hospitals；　furnishing　food　and　sometimes　clothing　and　shelter　to　destitute　blacks　and　whites；　and　transporting　refugees　of　both　races　back　to　their　homes。　Nearly　a　hundred　hospitals　and　clinics　were　established；　and　half　a　million　patients　were　treated。　This　work　was　greatly　needed；　especially　for　the　old　and　the　infirm；　and　it　was　well　done。　The　transportation　of　refugees　did　not　reach　large　proportions；　and　after　1866　it　was　entangled　in　politics。　But　the　issue　of　supplies　in　huge　quantities　brought　much　needed　relief　though　at　the　same　time　a　certain　amount　of　demoralization。　The　Bureau　claimed　little　credit；　and　is　usually　given　none；　for　keeping　alive　during　the　fall　and　winter　of　1865…1866　thousands　of　destitute　whites。　Yet　more　than　a　third　of　the　food　issued　was　to　whites；　and　without　it　many　would　have　starved。　Numerous　Confederate　soldiers　on　the　way　home　after　the　surrender　were　fed　by　the　Bureau；　and　in　the　destitute　white　districts　a　great　deal　of　suffering　was　relieved　and　prevented　by　its　operations。　The　Negroes；　dwelling　for　the　most　part　in　regions　where　labor　was　in　demand；　needed　relief　for　a　shorter　time；　but　they　were　attracted　in　numbers　to　the　towns　by　free　food；　and　it　was　difficult　to　get　them　back　to　work。　The　political　value　of　the　free　food　issues　was　not　generally　recognized　until　later　in　1866　and　in　1867。

During　the　first　year　of　the　Bureau　an　important　duty　of　the　agents　was　the　supervision　of　Negro　labor　and　the　fixing　of　wages。　Both　officials　and　planters　generally　demanded　that　contracts　be　written；　approved；　and　filed　in　the　office　of　the　Bureau。　They　thought　that　the　Negroes　would　work　better　if　they　were　thus　bound　by　contracts。　The　agents　usually　required　that　the　agreements　between　employer　and　laborer　cover　such　points　as　the　nature　of　the　work；　the　hours；　food　and　clothes；　medical　attendance；　shelter；　and　wages。　To　make　wages　secure；　the　laborer　was　given　a　lien　on　the　crop；　to　secure　the　planter　from　loss；　unpaid　wages　might　be　forfeited　if　the　laborer　failed　to　keep　his　part　of　the　contract。　When　it　dawned　upon　the　Bureau　authorities　that　other　systems　of　labor　had　been　or　might　be　developed　in　the　South；　they　permitted　arrangements　for　the　various　forms　of　cash　and　share　renting。　But　it　was　everywhere　forbidden　to　place　the　Negroes　under　〃overseers〃　or　to　subject　them　to　〃unwilling　apprenticeship〃　and　〃compulsory　working　out　of　debts。〃　The　written　contract　system　for　laborers　did　not　work　out　successfully。　The　Negroes　at　first　were　expecting　quite　other　fruits　of　freedom。　One　Mississippi　Negro　voiced　what　was　doubtless　the　opinion　of　many　when　he　declared　that　he　〃considered　no　man　free　who　had　to　work　for　a　living。〃　Few　Negroes　would　contract　for　more　than　three　months　and　none　for　a　period　beyond　January　1；　1866；　when　they　expected　a　division　of　lands　among　the　ex…slaves。　In　spite　of　the　regulations；　most　worked　on　oral　agreements。　In　1866　nearly　all　employers　threw　overboard　the　written　contract　system　for　labor　and　permitted　oral　agreements。　Some　states　had　passed　stringent　laws　for　the　enforcing　of　contracts；　but　in　Alabama；　Governor　Patton　vetoed　such　legislation　on　the　ground　that　it　was　not　needed。　General　Swayne；　the　Bureau　chief　for　the　state；　endorsed　the　Governor's　action　and　stated　that　the　Negro　was　protected　by　his　freedom　to　leave　when　mistreated；　and　the　planter；　by　the　need　on　the　part　of　the　Negro　for　food　and　shelter。　Negroes；　he　said；　were　afraid　of　contracts　and；　besides；　contracts　led　to　litigation。

In　order　to　safeguard　the　civil　rights　of　the　Negroes；　the　Bureau　was　given　authority　to　establish　courts　of　its　own　and　to　supervise　the　action　of　state　cour