proposed roads to freedom(通往自由之路)-第7章
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Germany； which became the home of orthodox Marxianism and developed
a powerful Social…Democratic party； nominally accepting the doctrine of
‘‘Das Kapital'' as all but verbally inspired； even there the enormous
increase of wealth in all classes in the years preceding the war led
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Socialists to revise their beliefs and to adopt an evolutionary rather than a
revolutionary attitude。 Bernstein； a German Socialist who lived long in
England； inaugurated the ‘‘Revisionist'' movement which at last conquered
the bulk of the party。 His criticisms of Marxian orthodoxy are set forth in
his ‘‘Evolutionary Socialism。''＇9＇ Bernstein's work； as is common in Broad
Church writers； consists largely in showing that the Founders did not hold
their doctrines so rigidly as their followers have done。 There is much in
the writings of Marx and Engels that cannot be fitted into the rigid
orthodoxy which grew up among their disciples。 Bernstein's main
criticisms of these disciples； apart from such as we have already
mentioned； consist in a defense of piecemeal action as against revolution。
He protests against the attitude of undue hostility to Liberalism which is
common among Socialists； and he blunts the edge of the Internationalism
which undoubtedly is part of the teachings of Marx。 The workers； he says；
have a Fatherland as soon as they become citizens； and on this basis he
defends that degree of nationalism which the war has since shown to be
prevalent in the ranks of Socialists。 He even goes so far as to maintain that
European nations have a right to tropical territory owing to their higher
civilization。 Such doctrines diminish revolutionary ardor and tend to
transform Socialists into a left wing of the Liberal Party。 But the
increasing prosperity of wage…earners before the war made these
developments inevitable。 Whether the war will have altered conditions in
this respect； it is as yet impossible to know。 Bernstein concludes with the
wise remark that： ‘‘We have to take working men as they are。 And they are
neither so universally paupers as was set out in the Communist Manifesto；
nor so free from prejudices and weaknesses as their courtiers wish to make
us believe。''
＇9＇ Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der
Sozial…Demokratie。''
In March； 1914； Bernstein delivered a lecture in Budapest in which he
withdrew from several of the positions he had taken up （vide Budapest
‘‘Volkstimme；'' March 19； 1914）。
Berstein represents the decay of Marxian orthodoxy from within。
Syndicalism represents an attack against it from without； from the
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standpoint of a doctrine which professes to be even more radical and more
revolutionary than that of Marx and Engels。 The attitude of Syndicalists to
Marx may be seen in Sorel's little book； ‘‘La Decomposition du
Marxisme；'' and in his larger work； ‘‘Reflections on Violence；'' authorized
translation by T。 E。 Hulme （Allen & Unwin； 1915）。 After quoting
Bernstein； with approval in so far as he criticises Marx； Sorel proceeds to
other criticisms of a different order。 He points out （what is true） that
Marx's theoretical economics remain very near to Manchesterism： the
orthodox political economy of his youth was accepted by him on many
points on which it is now known to be wrong。 According to Sorel； the
really essential thing in Marx's teaching is the class war。 Whoever keeps
this alive is keeping alive the spirit of Socialism much more truly than
those who adhere to the letter of Social…Democratic orthodoxy。 On the
basis of the class war； French Syndicalists developed a criticism of Marx
which goes much deeper than those that we have been hitherto considering。
Marx's views on historical development may have been in a greater or less
degree mistaken in fact； and yet the economic and political system which
he sought to create might be just as desirable as his followers suppose。
Syndicalism； however； criticises； not only Marx's views of fact； but also
the goal at which he aims and the general nature of the means which he
recommends。 Marx's ideas were formed at a time when democracy did not
yet exist。 It was in the very year in which ‘‘Das Kapital'' appeared that
urban working men first got the vote in England and universal suffrage
was granted by Bismarck in Northern Germany。 It was natural that great
hopes should be entertained as to what democracy would achieve。 Marx；
like the orthodox economists； imagined that men's opinions are guided by
a more or less enlightened view of economic self…interest； or rather of
economic class interest。 A long experience of the workings of political
democracy has shown that in this respect Disraeli and Bismarck were
shrewder judges of human nature than either Liberals or Socialists。 It has
become increasingly difficult to put trust in the State as a means to liberty；
or in political parties as instruments sufficiently powerful to force the State
into the service of the people。 The modern State； says Sorel； ‘‘is a body of
intellectuals； which is invested with privileges； and which possesses
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means of the kind called political for defending itself against the attacks
made on it by other groups of intellectuals； eager to possess the profits of
public employment。 Parties are constituted in order to acquire the conquest
of these employments； and they are analogous to the State。''＇10＇
＇10＇ La Decomposition du Marxisme；'' p。 53。
Syndicalists aim at organizing men； not by party； but by occupation。
This； they say； alone represents the true conception and method of the
class war。 Accordingly they despise all POLITICAL action through the
medium of Parliament and elections： the kind of action that they
recommend is direct action by the revolutionary syndicate or trade union。
The battle… cry of industrial versus political action has spread far beyond
the ranks of French Syndicalism。 It is to be found in the I。 W。 W。 in
America； and among Industrial Unionists and Guild Socialists in Great
Britain。 Those who advocate it； for the most part； aim also at a different
goal from that of Marx。 They believe that there can be no adequate
individual freedom where the State is all…powerful； even if the State be a
Socialist one。 Some of them are out…and… out Anarchists； who wish to see
the State wholly abolished； others only wish to curtail its authority。 Owing
to this movement； opposition to Marx； which from the Anarchist side
existed from the first； has grown very strong。 It is this opposition in its
older form that will occupy us in our next chapter。
CHAPTER II
BAKUNIN AND ANARCHISM
IN the popular mind； an Anarchist is a person who throws bombs and
commits other outrages； either because he is more or less insane； or
because he uses the pretense of extreme political opinions as a cloak for
criminal proclivities。 This view is； of course； in every way inadequate。
Some Anarchists believe in throwing bombs； many do not。 Men of almost
every other shade of opinion believe in throwing bombs in suitable
circumstances： for example； the men who threw the bomb at Sarajevo
which started the present war were not Anarchists； but Nationalists。 And
those Anarchists who are in favor of bomb…throwing do not in this respect
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differ on any vital principle from the rest of the community； with the
exception of that infinitesimal portion who adopt the Tolstoyan attitude of
non…resistance。 Anarchists； like Socialists； usually believe in the doctrine
of the class war； and if they use bombs； it is as Governments use bombs；
for purposes of war： but for every bomb manufactured by an Anarchist；
many millions are manufactured by Governments； and for every man
killed by Anarchist violence； many millions are killed by the violence of
States。 We may； therefore； dismiss from our minds the whole question of
violence； which plays so large a part in the popular imagination； since it is
neither essential nor peculiar to those who adopt the Anarchist position。
Anarchism； as its derivation indicates； is the theory which is opposed
to every kind of forcible government。 It is opposed to the State as the
embodiment of the force employed in the government of the community。
Such government as Anarchism can tolerate must be free government； not
merely in the sense that it is that of a majority； but in the sense that it is
that assented to by all。 Anarchists object to such institutions as the police
and the criminal law； by means of which the will of one part of the
community is forced upon another part。 In their view； the democratic form
of government is not very enormously preferable to other forms so long as
minorities are compelled by force or its potentiality to submit to the will of
majorities。 Liberty is the supreme good in the Anarchist creed； and liberty
is sought by the direct road of abolishing all forcible control over the
individual by the community。
Anarchism； in this sense； is no new doctrine。 It is set forth admirably
by Chuang Tzu； a Chinese philosopher； who lived about the year 300 B。
C。：
Horses have hoofs to carry them over frost and snow； hair；
