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disposed to hatred of foreign nations。 This is one of the evils inseparable 

from the concentration of power。 It will only be cured by the abolition of 



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capitalism if the new system is one which allows very much less power to 

single individuals。 It will not be cured by a system which substitutes the 

power   of   Ministers   or   officials   for   the   power   of   capitalists   This   is   one 

reason�察�additional to those mentioned in the preceding chapter�察�for desiring 

to see a diminution in the authority of the State。 

     Not   only   does   the   concentration   of   power   tend   to   cause   wars�察  �but�察�

equally�察    �wars    and   the   fear  of   them    bring   about    the   necessity    for   the 

concentration of power。 So long as the community is exposed to sudden 

dangers�察�the possibility of quick decision is absolutely necessary to self´ 

preservation。   The   cumbrous   machinery   of   deliberative   decisions   by   the 

people is impossible in a crisis�察�and therefore so long as crises are likely to 

occur�察    �it  is   impossible      to   abolish     the   almost     autocratic     power     of 

governments。 In this case�察�as in most others�察�each of two correlative evils 

tends to perpetuate the other。 The existence of men with the habit of power 

increases   the   risk   of   war�察  �and   the   risk   of   war   makes   it   impossible   to 

establish a system where no man possesses great power。 

     So   far   we   have   been   considering   what   is   true   in   the   contention   that 

capitalism causes   modern   wars。 It is time now  to   look at   the  other  side�察�

and to ask ourselves whether the abolition of capitalism would�察�by itself�察�

be sufficient to prevent war。 

     I   do   not   myself   believe   that   this   is   the   case。   The   outlook   of   both 

Socialists and Anarchists seems to me�察�in this respect as in some others�察�to 

be unduly divorced from the fundamental instincts of human nature。 There 

were wars   before  there was   capital´   ism�察 �and fighting   is   habitual   among 

animals。 The power of the Press in promoting war is entirely due to   the 

fact    that   it  is  able   to   appeal    to   certain    instincts。   Man     is  naturally 

competitive�察      �acquisitive�察   �and�察  �in   a  greater   or   less  degree�察   �pugnacious。 

When   the   Press   tells   him   that   so´and´so   is   his   enemy�察  �a   whole   set   of 

instincts   in him  responds to   the   suggestion。  It   is   natural   to   most   men   to 

suppose that they have enemies and to find a certain fulfillment of their 

nature   when      they   embark   upon       a   contest。   What   a   man   believes   upon 

grossly insufficient evidence is an index to his desiresdesires of which he 

himself is often unconscious。 If a man is offered a fact which goes against 

his    instincts�察  �he   will  scrutinize     it  closely�察  �and   unless    the  evidence      is 



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overwhelming�察  �he   will   refuse   to   believe   it。   If�察  �on   the   other   hand�察  �he   is 

offered something which affords a reason for acting in accordance with his 

instincts�察�he will accept it even on the slenderest evidence。 The origin of 

myths is explained in this way�察�and much of what is currently believed in 

international affairs is no better than myth。 Although capitalism affords in 

modern   society   the   channel   by   which   the   instinct   of   pugnacity   finds   its 

outlet�察�there is reason to fear that�察�if this channel were closed�察�some other 

would   be   found�察  �unless   education   and   environment   were   so   changed   as 

enormously   to   diminish   the   strength         of   the   competitive   instinct。   If   an 

economic reorganization can effect this it may pro´ vide a real safeguard 

against war�察�but if not�察�it is to be feared that the hopes of universal peace 

will prove delusive。 

     The     abolition    of  capitalism     might�察   �and   very   likely   would�察    �greatly 

diminish the incentives to war which are derived from the Press and from 

the   desire   of   finance   to   find   new   fields   for   investment   in   undeveloped 

countries�察�but those which are derived from the instinct of command and 

the    impatience     of   opposition     might    remain�察   �though     perhaps    in  a   less 

virulent   form   than   at   present。  A   democracy   which   has   power   is   almost 

always more bellicose than one which is excluded from its due share in the 

government。 The internationalism of Marx is based upon the assumption 

that   the   proletariat   everywhere   are   oppressed   by   the   ruling   classes。   The 

last words of the Communist Manifesto embody this idea 

       Let   the   ruling   classes    tremble    at  a  Communistic        revolution。    The 

proletarians have   nothing to lose but   their   chains。 They  have   a   world   to 

win。 Working men of all countries�察�unite� �

       So long as the proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains�察�it is 

not likely that their enmity will be directed against other proletarians。  If 

the world had developed as Marx   expected�察�the   kind of   internationalism 

which he foresaw might have inspired a universal social revolution。 Russia�察�

which devel´ oped more nearly than any other country upon the lines of 

his   system�察  �has   had   a   revolution   of   the   kind   which   he   expected。   If   the 

development in other countries had been similar�察�it is highly probable that 

this   revolution   would   have   spread   throughout   the   civilized   world。   The 

proletariat of all countries might have united against the capitalists as their 



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common enemy�察�and in the bond of an identical hatred they might for the 

moment   have   been   free   from   hatred   toward   each   other。   Even   then�察  �this 

ground of union would have ceased with their victory�察�and on the morrow 

of   the   social   revolution   the   old   national   rivalries   might   have       revived。 

There is no alchemy by which a universal harmony can be produced out of 

hatred。 Those who have been inspired to action by the doctrine of the class 

war will have acquired the habit of hatred�察�and will instinctively seek new 

enemies when the old ones have been vanquished。 

     But   in   actual   fact   the   psychology   of   the   working   man   in   any   of   the 

Western      democracies       is  totally   unlike    that   which     is  assumed      in  the 

Communist Manifesto。 He does not by any means feel that he has nothing 

to lose but his chains�察�nor indeed is this true。 The chains which bind Asia 

and Africa in subjection to Europe are partly riveted by him。 He is himself 

part   of   a   great   system   of   tyranny   and   exploitation。   Universal   freedom 

would remove�察�not only his own chains�察�which are comparatively light�察�but 

the far heavier chains which he has helped to fasten upon the subject races 

of the world。 

     Not only do the working men of a country like England have a share in 

the   benefit   accruing   from   the   exploitation   of   inferior   races�察  �but   many 

among   them   also   have   their   part   in   the   capitalist   system。   The   funds   of 

Trade Unions and Friendly Societies are invested in ordinary undertakings�察�

such   as   railways�察  �many   of   the   better´paid   wage´earners   have   put   their 

savings   into   government   securities�察  �and   almost   all   who   are   politically 

active   feel   themselves   part   of   the   forces   that   determine   public   policy�察�

through   the   power   of   the   Labor   Party   and   the   greater   unions。   Owing   to 

these   causes   their   outlook   on   life   has   become   to   a   considerable   extent 

impregnated with capitalism and as their sense of power has grown�察�their 

nationalism       has    increased。     This    must    continue      to   be   true   of   any 

internationalism        which     is   based    upon     hatred    of   the   capitalist    and 

adherence to the doctrine of the class war。 Something more positive and 

constructive than this is needed if governing democracies are not to inherit 

the vices of governing classes in the past。 

     I do not wish to be thought to deny that capitalism does very much to 

promote   wars�察  �or      that   wars   would     probably   be   less    frequent   and    less 



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destructive if private property were abolished。 On the contrary�察�I believe 

that the abolition of private ownership of land and capital is a necessary 

step toward any world in which the nations are to live at peace with one 

another。 I am only arguing that this step�察�necessary as it is�察�will not alone 

suffice for this end�察�but that among the causes of war there are others that 

go deeper into the roots of human nature than any that orthodox Socialists 

are wont to acknowledge。 

     Let us take an instance。 In Australia and California there is an intense 

dislike and fear toward the yellow races。 The causes of this are complex�察�

the   chief   among   them   are   two�察  �labor   competition   and   instinctive   race´ 

hatred。 It is probable that�察�if race´ hatred did not exist�察�the difficulties of 

labor competition could be overcome。 European immigrants also compete�察�

but   they   are   not   excluded。   In   a   sparsely   populated   country�察  �industrious 

cheap labor could�察�with a little care�察�be so utilized as to enrich the existing 

inhabitants�察�it might�察�for example�察�be confined to certain kinds of work�察�by 

custom if not by law。 But   race´hatred opens   men's minds to   the evils of 

competition   and   closes   them   against   the   advantages   of   co´operation�察  �it 

makes   them   regard   with       horror    the   somewhat     unfamiliar   vices     of  the 

aliens�察�while our own vices are viewed with mild toleration。 I cannot but 

think that�察�if Australia were completely socialized�察�there would still remain 

the same popular objection as at present to any large influx of Chinese or 

Japanese   labor。   Yet   if   Japan   also   were   to   become   a   Socialist   State�察  �the 

Japanese   might   well   continue   to   feel   the   pressure  of   population   and   the 

desire for an outlet。 In such circumstances�察�all the passions and interests 

required   to   produce   a   war   would   exist�察  �in   spite   of   the   establishment   of 

Soc

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