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included in A�察�then E will be included in A。 Similarly if the



syllogism is negative。 In the second figure it will be possible to



infer only that which is subordinate to the conclusion�察�e。g。 if A



belongs to no B and to all C�察�we conclude that B belongs to no C。 If



then D is subordinate to C�察�clearly B does not belong to it。 But



that B does not belong to what is subordinate to A is not clear by



means of the syllogism。 And yet B does not belong to E�察�if E is



subordinate to A。 But while it has been proved through the syllogism



that B belongs to no C�察�it has been assumed without proof that B



does not belong to A�察�consequently it does not result through the



syllogism that B does not belong to E。



  But in particular syllogisms there will be no necessity of inferring



what is subordinate to the conclusion ��for a syllogism does not result



when this premiss is particular���察�but whatever is subordinate to the



middle term may be inferred�察�not however through the syllogism�察�e。g。



if A belongs to all B and B to some C。 Nothing can be inferred about



that which is subordinate to C�察�something can be inferred about that



which is subordinate to B�察�but not through the preceding syllogism。



Similarly in the other figures。 That which is subordinate to the



conclusion cannot be proved�察�the other subordinate can be proved�察�only



not through the syllogism�察�just as in the universal syllogisms what is



subordinate to the middle term is proved ��as we saw�� from a premiss



which is not demonstrated�此�consequently either a conclusion is not



possible in the case of universal syllogisms or else it is possible



also in the case of particular syllogisms。







                                 2







  It is possible for the premisses of the syllogism to be true�察�or



to be false�察�or to be the one true�察�the other false。 The conclusion is



either true or false necessarily。 From true premisses it is not



possible to draw a false conclusion�察�but a true conclusion may be



drawn from false premisses�察�true however only in respect to the



fact�察�not to the reason。 The reason cannot be established from false



premisses�此�why this is so will be explained in the sequel。



  First then that it is not possible to draw a false conclusion from



true premisses�察�is made clear by this consideration。 If it is



necessary that B should be when A is�察�it is necessary that A should



not be when B is not。 If then A is true�察�B must be true�此�otherwise



it will turn out that the same thing both is and is not at the same



time。 But this is impossible。 Let it not�察�because A is laid down as



a single term�察�be supposed that it is possible�察�when a single fact



is given�察�that something should necessarily result。 For that is not



possible。 For what results necessarily is the conclusion�察�and the



means by which this comes about are at the least three terms�察�and



two relations of subject and predicate or premisses。 If then it is



true that A belongs to all that to which B belongs�察�and that B belongs



to all that to which C belongs�察�it is necessary that A should belong



to all that to which C belongs�察�and this cannot be false�此�for then the



same thing will belong and not belong at the same time。 So A is



posited as one thing�察�being two premisses taken together。 The same



holds good of negative syllogisms�此�it is not possible to prove a false



conclusion from true premisses。



  But from what is false a true conclusion may be drawn�察�whether



both the premisses are false or only one�察�provided that this is not



either of the premisses indifferently�察�if it is taken as wholly false��



but if the premiss is not taken as wholly false�察�it does not matter



which of the two is false。 ��1�� Let A belong to the whole of C�察�but



to none of the Bs�察�neither let B belong to C。 This is possible�察�e。g。



animal belongs to no stone�察�nor stone to any man。 If then A is taken



to belong to all B and B to all C�察�A will belong to all C��



consequently though both the premisses are false the conclusion is



true�此�for every man is an animal。 Similarly with the negative。 For



it is possible that neither A nor B should belong to any C�察�although A



belongs to all B�察�e。g。 if the same terms are taken and man is put as



middle�此�for neither animal nor man belongs to any stone�察�but animal



belongs to every man。 Consequently if one term is taken to belong to



none of that to which it does belong�察�and the other term is taken to



belong to all of that to which it does not belong�察�though both the



premisses are false the conclusion will be true。 ��2�� A similar proof



may be given if each premiss is partially false。



  ��3�� But if one only of the premisses is false�察�when the first



premiss is wholly false�察�e。g。 AB�察�the conclusion will not be true�察�but



if the premiss BC is wholly false�察�a true conclusion will be possible。



I mean by 'wholly false' the contrary of the truth�察�e。g。 if what



belongs to none is assumed to belong to all�察�or if what belongs to all



is assumed to belong to none。 Let A belong to no B�察�and B to all C。 If



then the premiss BC which I take is true�察�and the premiss AB is wholly



false�察�viz。 that A belongs to all B�察�it is impossible that the



conclusion should be true�此�for A belonged to none of the Cs�察�since A



belonged to nothing to which B belonged�察�and B belonged to all C。



Similarly there cannot be a true conclusion if A belongs to all B�察�and



B to all C�察�but while the true premiss BC is assumed�察�the wholly false



premiss AB is also assumed�察�viz。 that A belongs to nothing to which



B belongs�此�here the conclusion must be false。 For A will belong to all



C�察�since A belongs to everything to which B belongs�察�and B to all C。



It is clear then that when the first premiss is wholly false��



whether affirmative or negative�察�and the other premiss is true�察�the



conclusion cannot be true。



  ��4�� But if the premiss is not wholly false�察�a true conclusion is



possible。 For if A belongs to all C and to some B�察�and if B belongs to



all C�察�e。g。 animal to every swan and to some white thing�察�and white to



every swan�察�then if we take as premisses that A belongs to all B��



and B to all C�察�A will belong to all C truly�此�for every swan is an



animal。 Similarly if the statement AB is negative。 For it is



possible that A should belong to some B and to no C�察�and that B should



belong to all C�察�e。g。 animal to some white thing�察�but to no snow��



and white to all snow。 If then one should assume that A belongs to



no B�察�and B to all C�察�then will belong to no C。



  ��5�� But if the premiss AB�察�which is assumed�察�is wholly true�察�and the



premiss BC is wholly false�察�a true syllogism will be possible�此�for



nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to all C�察�though B belongs



to no C�察�e。g。 these being species of the same genus which are not



subordinate one to the other�此�for animal belongs both to horse and



to man�察�but horse to no man。 If then it is assumed that A belongs to



all B and B to all C�察�the conclusion will be true�察�although the



premiss BC is wholly false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。



For it is possible that A should belong neither to any B nor to any C��



and that B should not belong to any C�察�e。g。 a genus to species of



another genus�此�for animal belongs neither to music nor to the art of



healing�察�nor does music belong to the art of healing。 If then it is



assumed that A belongs to no B�察�and B to all C�察�the conclusion will be



true。



  ��6�� And if the premiss BC is not wholly false but in part only�察�even



so the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the



whole of B and of C�察�while B belongs to some C�察�e。g。 a genus to its



species and difference�此�for animal belongs to every man and to every



footed thing�察�and man to some footed things though not to all。 If then



it is assumed that A belongs to all B�察�and B to all C�察�A will belong



to all C�此�and this ex hypothesi is true。 Similarly if the premiss AB



is negative。 For it is possible that A should neither belong to any



B nor to any C�察�though B belongs to some C�察�e。g。 a genus to the



species of another genus and its difference�此�for animal neither



belongs to any wisdom nor to any instance of 'speculative'�察�but wisdom



belongs to some instance of 'speculative'。 If then it should be



assumed that A belongs to no B�察�and B to all C�察�will belong to no C��



and this ex hypothesi is true。



  In particular syllogisms it is possible when the first premiss is



wholly false�察�and the other true�察�that the conclusion should be



true�察�also when the first premiss is false in part�察�and the other



true�察�and when the first is true�察�and the particular is false�察�and



when both are false。 ��7�� For nothing prevents A belonging to no B�察�but



to some C�察�and B to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to no snow�察�but to



some white thing�察�and snow to some white thing。 If then snow is



taken as middle�察�and animal as first term�察�and it is assumed that A



belongs to the whole of B�察�and B to some C�察�then the premiss BC is



wholly false�察�the premiss BC true�察�and the conclusion true。



Similarly if the premiss AB is negative�此�for it is possible that A



should belong to the whole of B�察�but not to some C�察�although B belongs



to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to every man�察�but does not follow



some white�察�but man belongs to some white�察�consequently if man be



taken as middle term and it is assumed that A belongs to no B but B



belongs to some C�察�the conclusion will be true although the premiss AB



is wholly false。 ��If the premiss AB is false in part�察�the conclusion



may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging both to B and to some C��



and B belonging to some C�察�e。g。 animal to something beautiful and to



something great�察�and beautiful belonging to something great。 If then A



is assumed to belong to all B�察�and B to some C�察�the a premiss AB



will be partially false�察�the premiss BC will be true�察�and the



conclusion true。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。 For the same



terms will serve�察�and in the same positions�察�to prove the point。



  ��9�� Again if the premiss AB is true�察�and the premiss BC is false��



the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the



whole of B and to some C�察�while B belongs to no C�察�e。g。 animal to



every swan and to some black things�察�though swan belongs to no black



thing。 Consequently if it should be assumed that A belongs to all B��



and B to some C�察�the conclusion will be true�察�although the statement



BC is false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。 For it is

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