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梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈��梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈��梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何��
!!!!隆堋響頼��紗秘慕禰厮宴和肝写偬堋響��
included in A�察�then E will be included in A。 Similarly if the
syllogism is negative。 In the second figure it will be possible to
infer only that which is subordinate to the conclusion�察�e。g。 if A
belongs to no B and to all C�察�we conclude that B belongs to no C。 If
then D is subordinate to C�察�clearly B does not belong to it。 But
that B does not belong to what is subordinate to A is not clear by
means of the syllogism。 And yet B does not belong to E�察�if E is
subordinate to A。 But while it has been proved through the syllogism
that B belongs to no C�察�it has been assumed without proof that B
does not belong to A�察�consequently it does not result through the
syllogism that B does not belong to E。
But in particular syllogisms there will be no necessity of inferring
what is subordinate to the conclusion ��for a syllogism does not result
when this premiss is particular���察�but whatever is subordinate to the
middle term may be inferred�察�not however through the syllogism�察�e。g。
if A belongs to all B and B to some C。 Nothing can be inferred about
that which is subordinate to C�察�something can be inferred about that
which is subordinate to B�察�but not through the preceding syllogism。
Similarly in the other figures。 That which is subordinate to the
conclusion cannot be proved�察�the other subordinate can be proved�察�only
not through the syllogism�察�just as in the universal syllogisms what is
subordinate to the middle term is proved ��as we saw�� from a premiss
which is not demonstrated�此�consequently either a conclusion is not
possible in the case of universal syllogisms or else it is possible
also in the case of particular syllogisms。
2
It is possible for the premisses of the syllogism to be true�察�or
to be false�察�or to be the one true�察�the other false。 The conclusion is
either true or false necessarily。 From true premisses it is not
possible to draw a false conclusion�察�but a true conclusion may be
drawn from false premisses�察�true however only in respect to the
fact�察�not to the reason。 The reason cannot be established from false
premisses�此�why this is so will be explained in the sequel。
First then that it is not possible to draw a false conclusion from
true premisses�察�is made clear by this consideration。 If it is
necessary that B should be when A is�察�it is necessary that A should
not be when B is not。 If then A is true�察�B must be true�此�otherwise
it will turn out that the same thing both is and is not at the same
time。 But this is impossible。 Let it not�察�because A is laid down as
a single term�察�be supposed that it is possible�察�when a single fact
is given�察�that something should necessarily result。 For that is not
possible。 For what results necessarily is the conclusion�察�and the
means by which this comes about are at the least three terms�察�and
two relations of subject and predicate or premisses。 If then it is
true that A belongs to all that to which B belongs�察�and that B belongs
to all that to which C belongs�察�it is necessary that A should belong
to all that to which C belongs�察�and this cannot be false�此�for then the
same thing will belong and not belong at the same time。 So A is
posited as one thing�察�being two premisses taken together。 The same
holds good of negative syllogisms�此�it is not possible to prove a false
conclusion from true premisses。
But from what is false a true conclusion may be drawn�察�whether
both the premisses are false or only one�察�provided that this is not
either of the premisses indifferently�察�if it is taken as wholly false��
but if the premiss is not taken as wholly false�察�it does not matter
which of the two is false。 ��1�� Let A belong to the whole of C�察�but
to none of the Bs�察�neither let B belong to C。 This is possible�察�e。g。
animal belongs to no stone�察�nor stone to any man。 If then A is taken
to belong to all B and B to all C�察�A will belong to all C��
consequently though both the premisses are false the conclusion is
true�此�for every man is an animal。 Similarly with the negative。 For
it is possible that neither A nor B should belong to any C�察�although A
belongs to all B�察�e。g。 if the same terms are taken and man is put as
middle�此�for neither animal nor man belongs to any stone�察�but animal
belongs to every man。 Consequently if one term is taken to belong to
none of that to which it does belong�察�and the other term is taken to
belong to all of that to which it does not belong�察�though both the
premisses are false the conclusion will be true。 ��2�� A similar proof
may be given if each premiss is partially false。
��3�� But if one only of the premisses is false�察�when the first
premiss is wholly false�察�e。g。 AB�察�the conclusion will not be true�察�but
if the premiss BC is wholly false�察�a true conclusion will be possible。
I mean by 'wholly false' the contrary of the truth�察�e。g。 if what
belongs to none is assumed to belong to all�察�or if what belongs to all
is assumed to belong to none。 Let A belong to no B�察�and B to all C。 If
then the premiss BC which I take is true�察�and the premiss AB is wholly
false�察�viz。 that A belongs to all B�察�it is impossible that the
conclusion should be true�此�for A belonged to none of the Cs�察�since A
belonged to nothing to which B belonged�察�and B belonged to all C。
Similarly there cannot be a true conclusion if A belongs to all B�察�and
B to all C�察�but while the true premiss BC is assumed�察�the wholly false
premiss AB is also assumed�察�viz。 that A belongs to nothing to which
B belongs�此�here the conclusion must be false。 For A will belong to all
C�察�since A belongs to everything to which B belongs�察�and B to all C。
It is clear then that when the first premiss is wholly false��
whether affirmative or negative�察�and the other premiss is true�察�the
conclusion cannot be true。
��4�� But if the premiss is not wholly false�察�a true conclusion is
possible。 For if A belongs to all C and to some B�察�and if B belongs to
all C�察�e。g。 animal to every swan and to some white thing�察�and white to
every swan�察�then if we take as premisses that A belongs to all B��
and B to all C�察�A will belong to all C truly�此�for every swan is an
animal。 Similarly if the statement AB is negative。 For it is
possible that A should belong to some B and to no C�察�and that B should
belong to all C�察�e。g。 animal to some white thing�察�but to no snow��
and white to all snow。 If then one should assume that A belongs to
no B�察�and B to all C�察�then will belong to no C。
��5�� But if the premiss AB�察�which is assumed�察�is wholly true�察�and the
premiss BC is wholly false�察�a true syllogism will be possible�此�for
nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to all C�察�though B belongs
to no C�察�e。g。 these being species of the same genus which are not
subordinate one to the other�此�for animal belongs both to horse and
to man�察�but horse to no man。 If then it is assumed that A belongs to
all B and B to all C�察�the conclusion will be true�察�although the
premiss BC is wholly false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。
For it is possible that A should belong neither to any B nor to any C��
and that B should not belong to any C�察�e。g。 a genus to species of
another genus�此�for animal belongs neither to music nor to the art of
healing�察�nor does music belong to the art of healing。 If then it is
assumed that A belongs to no B�察�and B to all C�察�the conclusion will be
true。
��6�� And if the premiss BC is not wholly false but in part only�察�even
so the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the
whole of B and of C�察�while B belongs to some C�察�e。g。 a genus to its
species and difference�此�for animal belongs to every man and to every
footed thing�察�and man to some footed things though not to all。 If then
it is assumed that A belongs to all B�察�and B to all C�察�A will belong
to all C�此�and this ex hypothesi is true。 Similarly if the premiss AB
is negative。 For it is possible that A should neither belong to any
B nor to any C�察�though B belongs to some C�察�e。g。 a genus to the
species of another genus and its difference�此�for animal neither
belongs to any wisdom nor to any instance of 'speculative'�察�but wisdom
belongs to some instance of 'speculative'。 If then it should be
assumed that A belongs to no B�察�and B to all C�察�will belong to no C��
and this ex hypothesi is true。
In particular syllogisms it is possible when the first premiss is
wholly false�察�and the other true�察�that the conclusion should be
true�察�also when the first premiss is false in part�察�and the other
true�察�and when the first is true�察�and the particular is false�察�and
when both are false。 ��7�� For nothing prevents A belonging to no B�察�but
to some C�察�and B to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to no snow�察�but to
some white thing�察�and snow to some white thing。 If then snow is
taken as middle�察�and animal as first term�察�and it is assumed that A
belongs to the whole of B�察�and B to some C�察�then the premiss BC is
wholly false�察�the premiss BC true�察�and the conclusion true。
Similarly if the premiss AB is negative�此�for it is possible that A
should belong to the whole of B�察�but not to some C�察�although B belongs
to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to every man�察�but does not follow
some white�察�but man belongs to some white�察�consequently if man be
taken as middle term and it is assumed that A belongs to no B but B
belongs to some C�察�the conclusion will be true although the premiss AB
is wholly false。 ��If the premiss AB is false in part�察�the conclusion
may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging both to B and to some C��
and B belonging to some C�察�e。g。 animal to something beautiful and to
something great�察�and beautiful belonging to something great。 If then A
is assumed to belong to all B�察�and B to some C�察�the a premiss AB
will be partially false�察�the premiss BC will be true�察�and the
conclusion true。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。 For the same
terms will serve�察�and in the same positions�察�to prove the point。
��9�� Again if the premiss AB is true�察�and the premiss BC is false��
the conclusion may be true。 For nothing prevents A belonging to the
whole of B and to some C�察�while B belongs to no C�察�e。g。 animal to
every swan and to some black things�察�though swan belongs to no black
thing。 Consequently if it should be assumed that A belongs to all B��
and B to some C�察�the conclusion will be true�察�although the statement
BC is false。 Similarly if the premiss AB is negative。 For it is