the origins of contemporary france-2-第48章

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public　welfare。　…　For　withholding　the　nomination　of　judges；　the

reason　alleged　is　that　〃the　Court　and　the　Ministers　are　the　most

contemptible　portion　of　the　nation。〃＇8＇　　If　the　nomination　of

Ministers　is　conceded；　it　is　on　the　ground　that〃　Ministers　appointed

by　the　people　would　necessarily　be　too　highly　esteemed。〃　The

principle　is　that　〃the　legislative　body　alone　must　possess　the

confidence　of　the　people；〃　that　royal　authority　corrupts　its

depository；　and　that　executive　power　is　always　tempted　to　commit

abuses　and　to　engage　in　conspiracies。　　If　it　is　provided　for　in　the

Constitution　it　is　with　regret；　through　the　necessity　of　the　case；

and　on　the　condition　of　its　being　trammeled　by　impediments；　it　will

prove　so　much　the　less　baneful　in　proportion　as　it　is　restrained；

guarded；　threatened；　and　denounced。　…　A　position　of　this　kind　is

manifestly　intolerable；　and　only　a　man　as　passive　as　Louis　XVI。

could　have　put　up　with　it。　　Do　what　he　will；　however；　he　cannot　make

it　a　tenable　one。　　In　vain　does　he　scrupulously　adhere　to　the

Constitution；　and　fulfill　it　to　the　letter。　　Because　he　is　powerless

the　Assembly　regards　him　as　lukewarm；　and　imputes　to　him　the

friction　of　the　machine　which　is　not　under　his　control。　　If　he

presumes　once　to　exercise　his　veto　it　is　rebellion；　and　the

rebellion　of　an　official　against　his　superior；　which　is　the

Assembly；　the　rebellion　of　a　subject　against　his　Sovereign；　which　is

the　people。　　In　this　case　dethronement　is　proper；　and　the　Assembly

has　only　to　pass　the　decree；　the　people　have　simply　to　execute　the

act；　and　the　Constitution　ends　in　a　Revolution。　…　A　piece　of

machinery　of　this　stamp　breaks　down　through　its　own　movement。　　In

conformity　with　the　philosophic　theory　the　two　wheels　of　government

must　be　separated；　and　to　do　this　they　have　to　be　disconnected　and

isolated　one　from　the　other。　　In　conformity　with　the　popular　creed；

the　driving…wheel　　must　be　subordinated　and　its　influence

neutralized：　to　do　this　it　is　necessary　to　reduce　its　energy　to　a

minimum；　break　up　its　connections；　and　raise　it　up　in　the　air　to

turn　round　like　a　top；　or　to　remain　there　as　an　obstacle　to

something　else。　　It　is　certain　that；　after　much　ill…usage　as　a

plaything；　it　will　finally　be　removed　as　a　hindrance。







II。　　THE　CREATION　OF　POPULAR　DEMOCRACY。



Administrative　powers。　…　The　Assembly　on　the　hierarchy。　…　Grades

abolished。　…　Collective　powers。　…　Election　introduced；　and　the

influence　of　subordinates　in　all　branches　of　the　service。　…

Certainty　of　disorganization。　…　Power　in　the　hands　of　municipal

bodies。



Let　us　leave　the　center　of　government　and　go　to　the　extremities；　and

observe　the　various　administrations　in　working　operation。＇9＇



For　any　service　to　work　well　and　with　precision；　there　must　be　a

single　and　unique　chief　who　can　appoint；　pay；　punish　and　dismiss　his

subordinates。　…　For；　on　the　one　hand；　he　stands　alone　and　feels　his

responsibility；　he　brings　to　bear　on　the　management　of　affairs　a

degree　of　attention　and　consistency；　a　tact　and　a　power　of

initiation　of　which　a　committee　is　incapable；　corporate　follies　or

defects　do　not　involve　any　one　in　particular；　and　authority　is

effective　only　when　it　is　in　one　hand。　…　On　the　other　hand；　being

master；　he　can　rely　on　the　subalterns　whom　he　has　himself　selected；

whom　he　controls　through　their　hopes　or　fears；　and　whom　he

discharges　if　they　do　not　perform　their　duties；　otherwise　he　has　no

hold　on　them　and　they　are　not　instruments　to　be　depended　on。　　Only

on　these　conditions　can　a　railway　manager　be　sure　that　his　pointsmen

are　on　the　job。　　Only　on　these　conditions　can　the　foreman　of　a

foundry　engage　to　execute　work　by　a　given　day。　　In　every　public　or

private　enterprise；　direct；　immediate　authority　is　the　only　known；

the　only　human　and　possible　way　to　ensure　the　obedience　and

punctuality　of　agents。　…　Administration　is　thus　carried　on　in　all

countries；　by　one　or　several　series　of　functionaries；　each　under

some　central　manager　who　holds　the　reins　in　his　single　grasp。＇10＇



This　is　all　reversed　in　the　new　Constitution。　　In　the　eyes　of　our

legislators　obedience　must　be　spontaneous　and　never　compulsory；　and；

in　the　suppression　of　despotism；　they　suppress　government。　　The

general　rule　in　the　hierarchy　which　they　establish　is　that　the

subordinates　should　be　independent　of　their　superior；　for　he　must

neither　appoint　nor　displace　them：　the　only　right　he　has　is　to　give

them　advice　and　remonstrate　with　them。＇11＇　　At　best；　in　certain

cases；　he　can　annul　their　acts　and　inflict　on　them　a　provisional

suspension　of　their　functions；　which　can　be　contested　and　is

revocable。＇12＇　We　see；　thus；　that　none　of　the　local　powers　are

delegated　by　the　central　power；　the　latter　is　simply　like　a　man

without　either　hands　or　arms；　seated　in　a　gilt　chair。　　The　Minister

of　the　Finances　cannot　appoint　or　dismiss　either　an　assessor　or　a

collector；　the　Minister　of　the　Interior；　not　one　of　the

departmental；　district；　or　communal　administrators；　the　Minister　of

Justice；　not　one　judge　or　public　prosecutor。　　The　King；　in　these

three　branches　of　the　service；　has　but　one　officer　of　his　own；　the

commissioner　whose　duty　it　is　to　advocate　the　observance　of　the　laws

in　the　courts；　and；　on　sentence　being　given；　to　enforce　its

execution。　…　All　the　muscles　of　the　central　power　are　paralyzed　by

this　stroke；　and　henceforth　each　department　is　a　State　apart；　living

by　itself。



An　similar　amputation；　however；　in　the　department　itself；　has　cut

away　all　the　ties　by　which　the　superior　could　control　and　direct　his

subordinate。　…　If　the　administrators　of　the　department　are　suffered

to　influence　those　of　the　district；　and　those　of　the　district　those

of　the　municipality；　it　is　only；　again；　in　the　way　of　council　and

solicitation。　　Nowhere　is　the　superior　a　commander　who　orders　and

constrains；　but　everywhere　a　censor　who　gives　warnings　and　scolds。

To　render　this　already　feeble　authority　still　more　feeble　at　each

step　of　the　hierarchy；　it　is　divided　among　several　bodies。　　These

consist　of　superposed　councils；　which　administer　the　department；　the

district；　and　the　commune。　　There　is　no　directing　head　in　any　of

these　councils。　　Permanency　and　executive　functions　throughout　are

vested　in　the　directories　of　four　or　eight　members；　or　in　bureaus　of

two；　three；　four；　six；　and　even　seven　members　whose　elected　chief；　a

president　or　mayor；＇13＇　has　simply　an　honorary　primacy。　　Decision

and　action；　everywhere　blunted；　delayed；　or　curtailed　by　talk　and

the　processes　of　discussion；　are　brought　forth　only　after　the

difficult；　tumultuous　assent　of　several　discordant　wills。＇14＇

Elective　and　collective　as　these　powers　are；　measures　are　still

taken　to　guard　against　them。　　Not　only　are　they　subject　to　the

control　of　an　elected　council；　one…half　renewable　every　two　years；

but；　again；　the　mayor　and　public　prosecutor　of　the　commune　after

serving　four　years；　and　the　procureur…syndic　of　the　department　or

district　after　eight　years　service；　and　the　district　collector　after

six　years'　service；　are　not　re…elected。　　Should　these　officials　have

deserved　and　won　the　confidence　of　the　electors；　should　familiarity

with　affairs　have　made　them　specially　competent　and　valuable；　so

much　the　worse　for　affairs　and　the　public　；　they　are　not　to　be

anchored　to　their　post。＇15＇　　Should　their　continuance　in　office

introduce　into　the　service　a　spirit　of　order　and　economy；　that　is　of

no　consequence；　there　is　danger　of　their　acquiring　to　much

influence；　and　the　law　sends　them　off　as　soon　as　they　become　expert

and　entitled　to　rule。　…　Never　has　jealousy　and　suspicion　been　more

on　the　alert　against　power；　even　legal　and　legitimate。　　Sapping　and

mining　goes　on　even　in　services　which　are　recognized　as　essential；

as　the　army　and　the　gendarmerie。＇16＇　　In　the　army；　on　the

appointment　of　a　non…commissioned　officer；　the　other　non…

commissioned　officers　make　up　a　list　of　candidates；　and　the　captain

selects　three；　one　of　whom　is　chosen　by　the　colonel。　In　the　choice

of　a　sub…lieutenant；　all　the　officers　of　the　regiment　vote；　and　he

who　receives　a　majority　is　appointed。　　In　the　gendarmerie；　for　the

appointment　of　a　gendarme；　the　directory　of　the　department　forms　a

list；　the　colonel　designates　five　names　on　it；　and　the　directory

selects　one　of　them。　　For　the　choice　of　a　corporal；　quartermaster　or

lieutenant；　there　is；　besides　the　directory　and　the　colonel；　another

intervention；　that　of　the　officers；　both　commissioned　and　non…

commissioned。　　It　is　a　system　of　elective　complications　and　lot…

drawings；　one　which；　giving　a　voice　in　the　choice　of　officers　to　the

civil　authorities　and　to　military　subordinates；　leaves　the　colonel

with　only　a　third　or　one…quarter　of　his　former　ascendancy。　　In

relation　to　the　National　Guard；　the　new　principle　is　applied　without

any　reservation。　　All　the　officers　and　non…commissioned　officers　up

to　the　grade　of　captain　are　elected　by　their　own　men。　　All　the

superior　officers　are　elected　by　the　inferior　officers。　　All　under…

officers　and　all　inferior　and　superior　officers　are　elected　for　one

year　only；　and　are　not　eligible　for　re…election　until　after　an

interval　of　a　year；　during　which　they　must　serve　in　the　ranks。＇17＇

…　The　result　is　manifest：　command；　in　every　civil　and　in　every

military　order；　becomes　upset；　subalterns　are　no　longer　precise　and

trustworthy　instruments；　the　chief　no　longer　has　any　practical　hold

on　them；　his　orders；　consequently；　encounter　only　tame　obedience；

doubtful　deference；　sometimes　even　open　resistance；　their　execution

remains　dilatory；　uncertain；　incomplete；　and　at　length　is　utterly

neglected；　a　latent　and　soon　flagrant　system　of　disorganization　is

instituted　by　the　law。　　Step　by　step；　in　the　hierarchy　of

Government；　power　has　slipped　downwards；　and　henceforth　belongs　by

virtue　of　the　Constitution　to　the　authorities　who　sit　at　the　bottom

of　the　ladder。　　It　is　not　the　King；　or　the　minister；　or　the

directory　of　the　department　or　of　the　district　who　rules；　but　its

municipal　officers；　and　their　sway　is　as　omnipotent　as　it　can　be　in

a　small　independent　republic。　　They　alone　have　the　〃strong　hand〃

with　which　to　search　the　pockets　of　refractory　tax…payers；　and

ensure　the　collection　of　the　revenue；　to　seize　the　rioter　by　the

throat；　and　protect　life　and　property；　in　short；　to　convert　the

promises　and　menaces　of　the　law　into　acts。　　Every　armed　force；　the

National　Guard；　the　regulars；　and　the　gendarmerie；　must　march　on

their　requisition。　　They　alone；　among　the　body　of　administrators；

are　endowed　with　this　sovereign　right；　all　that　the　department　or

the　district　can　do　is　to　invite　them　to　exercise　it。　　It　is　they

who　proclaim　martial　law。　　Accordingly；　the　sword　is　in　their

hands。＇18＇　Assisted　by　commissioners　who　are　appointed　by　the

council…general　of　the　commune；　they　prepare　the　schedule　of

taxation　of　real　and　personal　property；　fix　the　quota　of　each　tax…

p