the psychology of revolution-第7章

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government；　supported　by　an　imposing　army；　can　be　overthrown　by　a

few　rioters；　naturally　attributed　the　fall　of　Louis…Philippe　to

deep…seated　causes。　　In　reality　the　incapacity　of　the　generals

entrusted　with　his　defence　was　the　real　cause　of　his　fall。



This　case　is　one　of　the　most　instructive　that　could　be　cited；　and

is　worthy　of　a　moment's　consideration。　　It　has　been　perfectly

investigated　by　General　Bonnal；　in　the　light　of　the　notes　of　an

eye…witness；　General　Elchingen。　　Thirty…six　thousand　troops　were

then　in　Paris；　but　the　weakness　and　incapacity　of　their　officers

made　it　impossible　to　use　them。　　Contradictory　orders　were　given；

and　finally　the　troops　were　forbidden　to　fire　on　the　people；　who；

moreoverand　nothing　could　have　been　more　dangerouswere

permitted　to　mingle　with　the　troops。　　The　riot　succeeded　without

fighting　and　forced　the　king　to　abdicate。



Applying　to　the　preceding　case　our　knowledge　of　the

psychology　of　crowds；　General　Bonnal　shows　how　easily　the　riot

which　overthrew　Louis…Philippe　could　have　been　controlled。　　He

proves；　notably；　that　if　the　commanding　officers　had　not

completely　lost　their　heads　quite　a　small　body　of　troops　could

have　prevented　the　insurgents　from　invading　the　Chamber　of

Deputies。　　This　last；　composed　of　monarchists；　would　certainly

have　proclaimed　the　Count　of　Paris　under　the　regency　of　his

mother。



Similar　phenomena　were　observable　in　the　revolutions　of　Spain　and

Portugal。



These　facts　show　the　role　of　petty　accessory　circumstances

in　great　events；　and　prove　that　one　must　not　speak　too　readily　of

the　general　laws　of　history。　　Without　the　riot　which　overthrew

Louis…Philippe；　we　should　probably　have　seen　neither　the　Republic

of　1848；　nor　the　Second　Empire；　nor　Sedan；　nor　the　invasion；　nor

the　loss　of　Alsace。



In　the　revolutions　of　which　I　have　just　been　speaking　the　army

was　of　no　assistance　to　the　government；　but　did　not　turn　against

it。　　It　sometimes　happens　otherwise。　　It　is　often　the　army　which

effects　the　revolution；　as　in　Turkey　and　Portugal。　　The

innumerable　revolutions　of　the　Latin　republics　of　America　are

effected　by　the　army。



When　a　revolution　is　effected　by　an　army　the　new　rulers　naturally

fall　under　its　domination。　　I　have　already　recalled　the　fact　that

this　was　the　case　at　the　end　of　the　Roman　Empire；　when　the

emperors　were　made　and　unmade　by　the　soldiery。



The　same　thing　has　sometimes　been　witnessed　in　modern　times。　　The

following　extract　from　a　newspaper；　with　reference　to　the

Greek　revolution；　shows　what　becomes　of　a　government　dominated　by

its　army：



‘‘One　day　it　was　announced　that　eighty　officers　of　the　navy　would

send　in　their　resignations　if　the　government　did　not　dismiss　the

leaders　of　whom　they　complained。　　Another　time　it　was　the

agricultural　labourers　on　a　farm　（metairie）　belonging　to　the

Crown　Prince　who　demanded　the　partition　of　the　soil　among　them。　

The　navy　protested　against　the　promotion　promised　to　Colonel

Zorbas。　　Colonel　Zorbas；　after　a　week　of　discussion　with

Lieutenant　Typaldos；　treated　with　the　President　of　the　Council　as

one　power　with　another。　　During　this　time　the　Federation　of　the

corporations　abused　the　officers　of　the　navy。　　A　deputy　demanded

that　these　officers　and　their　families　should　be　treated　as

brigands。　　When　Commander　Miaoulis　fired　on　the　rebels；　the

sailors；　who　first　of　all　had　obeyed　Typaldos；　returned　to　duty。　

This　is　no　longer　the　harmonious　Greece　of　Pericles　and

Themistocles。　　It　is　a　hideous　camp　of　Agramant。''



A　revolution　cannot　be　effected　without　the　assistance　or　at

least　the　neutrality　of　the　army；　but　it　often　happens　that　the

movement　commences　without　it。　　This　was　the　case　with　the

revolutions　of　1830　and　1848；　and　that　of　1870；　which　overthrew

the　Empire　after　the　humiliation　of　France　by　the　surrender　of

Sedan。



The　majority　of　revolutions　take　place　in　the　capitals；　and　by

means　of　contagion　spread　through　the　country；　but　this　is　not　a

constant　rule。　　We　know　that　during　the　French　Revolution　La

Vendee；　Brittany；　and　the　Midi　revolted　spontaneously　against

Paris。





2。　　How　the　resistance　of　Governments　may　overcome　Revolution。





In　the　greater　number　of　the　revolutions　enumerated　above；　we

have　seen　governments　perish　by　their　weakness。　　As　soon　as　they

were　touched　they　fell。



The　Russian　Revolution　proved　that　a　government　which　defends

itself　energetically　may　finally　triumph。



Never　was　revolution　more　menacing　to　the　government。　　After　the

disasters　suffered　in　the　Orient；　and　the　severities　of　a　too

oppressive　autocratic　regime；　all　classes　of　society；　including　a

portion　of　the　army　and　the　fleet；　had　revolted。　　The　railways；

posts；　and　telegraph　services　had　struck；　so　that　communications

between　the　various　portions　of　the　vast　empire　were　interrupted。



The　rural　class　itself；　forming　the　majority　of　the　nation；　began

to　feel　the　influence　of　the　revolutionary　propaganda。　　The　lot

of　the　peasants　was　wretched。　　They　were　obliged；　by　the　system

of　the　mir；　to　cultivate　soil　which　they　could　not　acquire。　　The

government　resolved　immediately　to　conciliate　this　large　class　of

peasants　by　turning　them　into　proprietors。　　Special　laws　forced

the　landlords　to　sell　the　peasants　a　portion　of　their　lands；　and

banks　intended　to　lend　the　buyers　the　necessary　purchase…money

were　created。　　The　sums　lent　were　to　be　repaid　by　small　annuities

deducted　from　the　product　of　the　sale　of　the　crops。



Assured　of　the　neutrality　of　the　peasants；　the　government　could

contend　with　the　fanatics　who　were　burning　the　towns；　throwing

bombs　among　the　crowds；　and　waging　a　merciless　warfare。　　All

those　who　could　be　taken　were　killed。　　Such　extermination　is　the

only　method　discovered　since　the　beginning　of　the　world　by　which

a　society　can　be　protected　against　the　rebels　who　wish　to　destroy

it。



The　victorious　government　understood　moreover　the　necessity　of

satisfying　the　legitimate　claims　of　the　enlightened　portion　of

the　nation。　　It　created　a　parliament　instructed　to　prepare　laws

and　control　expenditure。



The　history　of　the　Russian　Revolution　shows　us　how　a　government；

all　of　whose　natural　supports　have　crumbled　in　succession；　can；

with　wisdom　and　firmness；　triumph　over　the　most　formidable

obstacles。　　It　has　been　very　justly　said　that　governments　are　not

overthrown；　but　that　they　commit　suicide。





3。　　Revolutions　effected　by　Governments。Examples：　　

China；　Turkey；　&c。





Governments　almost　invariably　fight　revolutions；　they　hardly　ever

create　them。　　Representing　the　needs　of　the　moment　and　general

opinion；　they　follow　the　reformers　timidly；　they　do　not　precede

them。　　Sometimes；　however；　certain　governments　have　attempted

those　sudden　reforms　which　we　know　as　revolutions。　　The　stability

or　instability　of　the　national　mind　decrees　the　success　or

failure　of　such　attempts。



They　succeed　when　the　people　on　whom　the　government　seeks　to

impose　new　institutions　is　composed　of　semi…barbarous　tribes；

without　fixed　laws；　without　solid　traditions；　that　is　to　say；

without　a　settled　national　mind。　　Such　was　the　condition　of

Russia　in　the　days　of　Peter　the　Great。　　We　know　how　he　sought　to

Europeanise　the　semi…Asiatic　populations　by　means　of　force。



Japan　is　another　example　of　a　revolution　effected　by　a

government；　but　it　was　her　machinery；　not　her　mind　that　was

reformed。



It　needs　a　very　powerful　autocrat；　seconded　by　a　man　of　genius；

to　succeed；　even　partially；　in　such　a　task。　　More　often　than　not

the　reformer　finds　that　the　whole　people　rises　up　against　him。　

Then；　to　the　contrary　of　what　befalls　in　an　ordinary　revolution；

the　autocrat　is　revolutionary　and　the　people　is　conservative。　

But　an　attentive　study　will　soon　show　you　that　the　peoples　are

always　extremely　conservative。



Failure　is　the　rule　with　these　attempts。　　Whether　effected　by　the

upper　classes　or　the　lower；　revolutions　do　not　change　the　souls

of　peoples　that　have　been　a　long　time　established。　　They　only

change　those　things　that　are　worn　by　time　and　ready　to　fall。



China　is　at　the　present　time　making　a　very　interesting　but

impossible　experiment；　in　seeking；　by　means　of　the　government；

suddenly　to　renew　the　institutions　of　the　country。　　The

revolution　which　overturned　the　dynasty　of　her　ancient　sovereigns

was　the　indirect　consequence　of　the　discontent　provoked　by

reforms　which　the　government　had　sought　to　impose　with　a　view　to

ameliorating　the　condition　of　China。　　The　suppression　of　opium

and　gaming；　the　reform　of　the　army；　and　the　creation　of　schools；

involved　an　increase　of　taxation　which；　as　well　as　the　reforms

themselves；　greatly　indisposed　the　general　opinion。



A　few　cultured　Chinese　educated　in　the　schools　of　Europe　profited

by　this　discontent　to　raise　the　people　and　proclaim　a　republic；

an　institution　of　which　the　Chinese　could　have　had　no　conception。



It　surely　cannot　long　survive；　for　the　impulse　which　has　given

birth　to　it　is　not　a　movement　of　progress；　but　of　reaction。　　The

word　republic；　to　the　Chinaman　intellectualised　by　his　European

education；　is　simply　synonymous　with　the　rejection　of　the　yoke　of

laws；　rules；　and　long…established　restraints。　　Cutting　off　his

pigtail；　covering　his　head　with　a　cap；　and　calling　himself　a

Republican；　the　young　Chinaman　thinks　to　give　the　rein　to　all　his

instincts。　　This　is　more　or　less　the　idea　of　a　republic　that　a

large　part　of　the　French　people　entertained　at　the　time　of　the

great　Revolution。



China　will　soon　discover　the　fate　that　awaits　a　society　deprived

of　the　armour　slowly　wrought　by　the　past。　　After　a　few　years　of

bloody　anarchy　it　will　be　necessary　to　establish　a　power　whose

tyranny　will　inevitably　be　far　severer　than　that　which　was

overthrown。　　Science　has　not　yet　discovered　the　magic　ring

capable　of　saving　a　society　without　discipline。　　There　is　no　need

to　impose　discipline　when　it　has　become　hereditary；　but　when　the

primitive　instincts　have　been　allowed　to　destroy　the　barriers

painfully　erected　by　slow　ancestral　labours；　they　cannot　be

reconstituted　save　by　an　energetic　tyranny。



As　a　proof　of　these　assertions　we　may　instance　an　experiment

analogous　to　that　undertaken　by　China；　that　recently　attempted　by

Turkey。　　A　few　years　ago　young　men　instructed　in　European　schools

and　full　of　good　intentions　succeeded；　with　the　aid　of　a

number　of　officers；　in　overthrowing　a　Sultan　whose　tyranny　seemed

insupportable。　　Having　acquired　our　robust　Latin　faith　in　the

magic　power　of　formulae；　they　thought　they　could　establish　the

representative　system　in　a　country　half…civilised；　profoundly

divided　by　religious　hatred；　and　peopled　by　divers　races。



The　attempt　has　not　prospered　hitherto。　　The　authors　of　the

reformation　had　to　learn　that　despite　their　liberalism　they　were

forced　to　govern　by　methods　very　like　those　employed　by　the

govern