the psychology of revolution-第43章

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‘‘Nothing　is　more　dreadful　than　to　govern　men　in　this　enlightened

century；　when　every　cobbler　reasons　and　criticises　the

Government。''



To　tell　the　truth；　the　objections　are　not　always　as　great　as　they

appear。　　The　laws　of　the　psychology　of　crowds　being　admitted；　it

is　very　doubtful　whether　a　limited　suffrage　would　give　a　much

better　choice　of　men　than　that　obtained　by　universal　suffrage。



These　same　psychological　laws　also　show　us　that　so…called

universal　suffrage　is　in　reality　a　pure　fiction。　　The　crowd；　save

in　very　rare　cases；　has　no　opinion　but　that　of　its　leaders。　

Universal　suffrage　really　represents　the　most　limited　of

suffrages。



There　justly　resides　its　real　danger。　　Universal　suffrage　is　made

dangerous　by　the　fact　that　the　leaders　who　are　its　masters　are

the　creatures　of　little　local　committees　analogous　to　the　clubs

of　the　Revolution。　　The　leader　who　canvasses　for　a　mandate　is

chosen　by　them。



Once　nominated；　he　exercises　an　absolute　local　power；　on

condition　of　satisfying　the　interests　of　his　committees。　　Before

this　necessity　the　general　interest　of　the　country　disappears

almost　totally　from　the　mind　of　the　elected　representative。



Naturally　the　committees；　having　need　of　docile　servants；　do　not

choose　for　this　task　individuals　gifted　with　a　lofty　intelligence

nor；　above　all；　with　a　very　high　morality。　　They　must　have　men

without　character；　without　social　position；　and　always　docile。



By　reason　of　these　necessities　the　servility　of　the　deputy　in

respect　of　these　little　groups　which　patronise　him；　and　without

which　he　would　be　no　one；　is　absolute。　　He　will　speak　and　vote

just　as　his　committee　tells　him。　　His　political　ideal　may　be

expressed　in　a　few　words：　it　is　to　obey；　that　he　may　retain　his

post。



Sometimes；　rarely　indeed；　and　only　when　by　name　or　position　or

wealth　he　has　a　great　prestige；　a　superior　character　may　impose

himself　upon　the　popular　vote　by　overcoming　the　tyranny　of　the

impudent　minorities　which　constitute　the　local　committees。



Democratic　countries　like　France　are　only　apparently　governed　by

universal　suffrage。　　For　this　reason　is　it　that　so　many　measures

are　passed　which　do　not　interest　the　people　and　which　the　people

never　demanded。　　Such　were　the　purchase　of　the　Western　railways；

the　laws　respecting　congregations；　&c。　　These　absurd

manifestations　merely　translated　the　demands　of　fanatical　local

committees；　and　were　imposed　upon　deputies　whom　they　had　chosen。



We　may　judge　of　the　influence　of　these　committees　when　we　see

moderate　deputies　forced　to　patronise　the　anarchical

destroyers　of　arsenals；　to　ally　themselves　with　anti…militarists；

and；　in　a　word；　to　obey　the　most　atrocious　demands　in　order　to

ensure　re…election。　　The　will　of　the　lowest　elements　of　democracy

has　thus　created　among　the　elected　representatives　manners　and　a

morality　which　we　can　but　recognise　are　of　the　lowest。　　The

politician　is　the　man　in　public　employment；　and　as　Nietzsche

says：



‘‘Where　public　employment　begins　there　begins　also　the　clamour　of

the　great　comedians　and　the　buzzing　of　venomous　flies。　。　。　。　　The

comedian　always　believes　in　that　which　makes　him　obtain　his　best

effects；　in　that　which　impels　the　people　to　believe　in　him。　　To…

morrow　he　will　have　a　new　faith；　and　the　day　after　to…morrow　yet

another。　。　。　。　　All　that　is　great　has　its　being　far　from　public

employment　and　glory。''





4。　　The　Craving　for　Reforms。





The　craze　for　reforms　imposed　suddenly　by　means　of　decrees　is　one

of　the　most　disastrous　conceptions　of　the　Jacobin　spirit；　one　of

the　formidable　legacies　left　by　the　Revolution。　　It　is　among　the

principal　factors　of　all　the　incessant　political　upheavals　of　the

last　century　in　France。



One　of　the　psychological　causes　of　this　intense　thirst　for

reforms　arises　from　the　difficulty　of　determining　the　real　causes

of　the　evils　complained　of。　　The　need　of　explanation　creates

fictitious　causes　of　the　simplest　nature。　　Therefore　the　remedies

also　appear　simple。



For　forty　years　we　have　incessantly　been　passing　reforms；　each　of

which　is　a　little　revolution　in　itself。　　In　spite　of　all　these；

or　rather　because　of　them；　the　French　have　evolved　almost

as　little　as　any　race　in　Europe。



The　slowness　of　our　actual　evolution　may　be　seen　if　we　compare

the　principal　elements　of　our　social　lifecommerce；　industry；

&c。with　those　of　other　nations。　　The　progress　of　other

nationsof　the　Germans　especiallythen　appears　enormous；　while

our　own　has　been　very　slow。



Our　administrative；　industrial；　and　commercial　organisation　is

considerably　out　of　date；　and　is　no　longer　equal　to　our　new

needs。　　Our　industry　is　not　prospering；　our　marine　is　declining。　

Even　in　our　own　colonies　we　cannot　compete　with　foreign

countries；　despite　the　enormous　pecuniary　subventions　accorded　by

the　State。　　M。　Cruppi；　an　ex…Minister　of　Commerce；　has　insisted

on　this　melancholy　decline　in　a　recent　book。　　Falling　into　the

usual　errors；　he　believed　it　easy　to　remedy　this　inferiority　by

new　laws。



All　politicians　share　the　same　opinion；　which　is　why　we　progress

so　slowly。　　Each　party　is　persuaded　that　by　means　of　reforms　all

evils　could　be　remedied。　　This　conviction　results　in　struggles

such　as　have　made　France　the　most　divided　country　in　the　world

and　the　most　subject　to　anarchy。



No　one　yet　seems　to　understand　that　individuals　and　their

methods；　not　regulations；　make　the　value　of　a　people。　　The

efficacious　reforms　are　not　the　revolutionary　reforms　but　the

trifling　ameliorations　of　every　day　accumulated　in　course　of

time。　　The　great　social　changes；　like　the　great　geological

changes；　are　effected　by　the　daily　addition　of　minute　causes。　

The　economic　history　of　Germany　during　the　last　forty

years　proves　in　a　striking　manner　the　truth　of　this　law。



Many　important　events　which　seem　to　depend　more　or　less　on

hazardas　battles；　for　exampleare　themselves　subject　to　this

law　of　the　accumulation　of　small　causes。　　No　doubt　the　decisive

struggle　is　sometimes　terminated　in　a　day　or　less；　but　many

minute　efforts；　slowly　accumulated；　are　essential　to　victory。　　We

had　a　painful　experience　of　this　in　1870；　and　the　Russians　have

learned　it　more　recently。　　Barely　half　an　hour　did　Admiral　Togo

need　to　annihilate　the　Russian　fleet；　at　the　battle　of　Tsushima；

which　finally　decided　the　fate　of　Japan；　but　thousands　of　little

factors；　small　and　remote；　determined　that　success。　　Causes　not

less　numerous　engendered　the　defeat　of　the　Russiansa

bureaucracy　as　complicated　as　ours；　and　as　irresponsible；

lamentable　material；　although　paid　for　by　its　weight　in　gold；　a

system　of　graft　at　every　degree　of　the　social　hierarchy；　and

general　indifference　to　the　interests　of　the　country。



Unhappily　the　progress　in　little　things　which　by　their　total　make

up　the　greatness　of　a　nation　is　rarely　apparent；　produces　no

impression　on　the　public；　and　cannot　serve　the　interests　of

politicians　at　elections。　　These　latter　care　nothing　for　such

matters；　and　permit　the　accumulation；　in　the　countries　subject　to

their　influence；　of　the　little　successive　disorganisations　which

finally　result　in　great　downfalls。





5。　　Social　Distinctions　in　Democracies　and　Democratic　Ideas　in

Various　Countries。





When　men　were　divided　into　castes　and　differentiated　chiefly　by

birth；　social　distinctions　were　generally　accepted　as　the

consequences　of　an　unavoidable　natural　law。



As　soon　as　the　old　social　divisions　were　destroyed　the

distinctions　of　the　classes　appeared　artificial；　and　for　that

reason　ceased　to　be　tolerated。



The　necessity　of　equality　being　theoretical；　we　have　seen　among

democratic　peoples　the　rapid　development　of　artificial

inequalities；　permitting　their　possessors　to　make　for　themselves

a　plainly　visible　supremacy。　　Never　was　the　thirst　for　titles　and

decorations　so　general　as　to…day。



In　really　democratic　countries；　such　as　the　United　States；　titles

and　decorations　do　not　exert　much　influence；　and　fortune　alone

creates　distinctions。　　It　is　only　by　exception　that　we　see

wealthy　young　American　girls　allying　themselves　to　the　old　names

of　the　European　aristocracy。　　They　are　then　instinctively

employing　the　only　means　which　will　permit　a　young　race　to

acquire　a　past　that　will　establish　its　moral　framework。



But　in　a　general　fashion　the　aristocracy　that　we　see　springing　up

in　America　is　by　no　means　founded　on　titles　and　decorations。　

Purely　financial；　it　does　not　provoke　much　jealousy；　because

every　one　hopes　one　day　to　form　part　of　it。



When；　in　his　book　on　democracy　in　America；　Toqueville　spoke　of

the　general　aspiration　towards　equality　he　did　not　realise　that

the　prophesied　equality　would　end　in　the　classification　of　men

founded　exclusively　on　the　number　of　dollars　possessed　by　them。　

No　other　exists　in　the　United　States；　and　it　will　doubtless　one

day　be　the　same　in　Europe。



At　present　we　cannot　possibly　regard　France　as　a　democratic

country　save　on　paper；　and　here　we　feel　the　necessity；　already

referred　to；　of　examining　the　various　ideas　which　in　different

countries　are　expressed　by　the　word　‘‘democracy。''



Of　truly　democratic　nations　we　can　practically　mention　only

England　and　the　United　States。　　There；　democracy　occurs　in

different　forms；　but　the　same　principles　are　observednotably；　a

perfect　toleration　of　all　opinions。　　Religious　persecutions　are

unknown。　　Real　superiority　easily　reveals　itself　in　the　various

professions　which　any　one　can　enter　at　any　age　if　he　possesses

the　necessary　capacity。　　There　is　no　barrier　to　individual

effort。



In　such　countries　men　believe　themselves　equal　because　all　have

the　idea　that　they　are　free　to　attain　the　same　position。　　The

workman　knows　he　can　become　foreman；　and　then　engineer。　　Forced

to　begin　on　the　lower　rungs　of　the　ladder　instead　of　high　up　the

scale；　as　in　France；　the　engineer　does　not　regard　himself　as　made

of　different　stuff　to　the　rest　of　mankind。　　It　is　the　same　in　all

professions。　　This　is　why　the　class　hatred；　so　intense　in　Europe；

is　so　little　developed　in　England　and　America。



In　France　the　democracy　is　practically　non…existent　save　in

speeches。　　A　system　of　competitions　and　examinations；　which　must

be　worked　through　in　youth；　firmly　closes　the　door　upon　the

liberal　professions；　and　creates　inimical　and　separate　classes。



The　Latin　democracies　are　therefore　purely　theoretical。　　The

absolutism　of　the　State　has　replaced　monarchical　absolutism；　but

it　is　no　less　severe。　　The　aristocracy　of　fortune　has　replaced

that　of　birth；　and　its　privileges　are　no　less　considerable。



Monarchies　and　democracies　differ　far　more　in　form　than　in

substance。　　It　is　only　the　variable　mentality　of　men　that　varies

their　effects。　　All　the　discussions　as　to　various　systems　of

government　are　really　of　no　interest；　for　these　have　no　special

virtue　of　themselves。　　T