the psychology of revolution-第31章

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But　even　for　its　enemies　this　bloodstained　epoch　must　always

retain　an　undeniable　glory；　thanks　to　the　success　of　its　armies。　

When　the　Convention　dissolved　France　was　already　the　greater　by

Belgium　and　the　territories　on　the　left　bank　of　the　Rhine。



Regarding　the　Convention　as　a　whole；　it　seems　equitable　to　credit

it　with　the　victories　of　the　armies　of　France；　but　if　we　analyse

this　whole　in　order　to　study　each　of　its　elements　separately

their　independence　will　at　once　be　obvious。　　It　is　at　once

apparent　that　the　Convention　had　a　very　small　share　in　the

military　events　of　the　time。　　The　armies　on　the　frontier　and　the

revolutionary　Assemblies　in　Paris　formed　two　separate　worlds；

which　had　very　little　influence　over　one　another；　and　which

regarded　matters　in　a　very　different　light。



We　have　seen　that　the　Convention　was　a　weak　Government；　which

changed　its　ideas　daily；　according　to　popular　impulse；　it　was

really　an　example　of　the　profoundest　anarchy。　　It　directed

nothing；　but　was　itself　continually　directed；　how；　then；　could　it

have　commanded　armies？



Completely　absorbed　in　its　intestine　quarrels；　the　Assembly　had

abandoned　all　military　questions　to　a　special　committee；　which

was　directed　almost　single…handed　by　Carnot；　and　whose　real

function　was　to　furnish　the　troops　with　provisions　and

ammunition。　　The　merit　of　Carnot　consisted　in　the　fact　that

besides　directing　over　752；000　men　at　the　disposal　of　France；

upon　points　which　were　strategically　valuable；　he　also　advised

the　generals　of　the　armies　to　take　the　offensive；　and　to　preserve

a　strict　discipline。



The　sole　share　of　the　Assembly　in　the　defence　of　the　country　was

the　decree　of　the　general　levy。　　In　the　face　of　the　numerous

enemies　then　threatening　France；　no　Government　could　have　avoided

such　a　measure。　　For　some　little　time；　too；　the　Assembly　had　sent

representatives　to　the　armies　instructed　to　decapitate　certain

generals；　but　this　policy　was　soon　abandoned。



As　a　matter　of　fact　the　military　activities　of　the　Assembly　were

always　extremely　slight。　　The　armies；　thanks　to　their　numbers；

their　enthusiasm；　and　the　tactics　devised　by　their　youthful

generals；　achieved　their　victories　unaided。　　They　fought　and

conquered　independently　of　the　Convention。





2。　　The　Struggle　of　Europe　against　the　Revolution。





Before　enumerating　the　various　psychological　factors　which

contributed　to　the　successes　of　the　revolutionary　armies；　it　will

be　useful　briefly　to　recall　the　origin　and　the　development　of　the

war　against　Europe。



At　the　commencement　of　the　Revolution　the　foreign　sovereigns

regarded　with　satisfaction　the　difficulties　of　the　French

monarchy；　which　they　had　long　regarded　as　a　rival　power。　　The

King　of　Prussia；　believing　France　to　be　greatly　enfeebled；

thought　to　enrich　himself　at　her　expense；　so　he　proposed　to　the

Emperor　of　Austria　to　help　Louis　on　condition　of　receiving

Flanders　and　Alsace　as　an　indemnity。　　The　two　sovereigns　signed

an　alliance　against　France　in　February；　1792。　　The　French

anticipated　attack　by　declaring　war　upon　Austria；　under　the

influence　of　the　Girondists。　　The　French　army　was　at　the　outset

subjected　to　several　checks。　　The　allies　penetrated　into

Champagne；　and　came　within　130　miles　of　Paris。　　Dumouriez'

victory　at　Valmy　forced　them　to　retire。



Although　300　French　and　200　Prussians　only　were　killed　in　this

battle；　it　had　very　significant　results。　　The　fact　that　an　army

reputed　invincible　had　been　forced　to　retreat　gave　boldness　to

the　young　revolutionary　troops；　and　everywhere　they　took　the

offensive。　　In　a　few　weeks　the　soldiers　of　Valmy　had　chased　the

Austrians　out　of　Belgium；　where　they　were　welcomed　as　liberators。



But　it　was　under　the　Convention　that　the　war　assumed　such

importance。　　At　the　beginning　of　1793　the　Assembly　declared　that

Belgium　was　united　to　France。　　From　this　resulted　a　conflict　with

England　which　lasted　for　twenty…two　years。



Assembled　at　Antwerp　in　April；　1793；　the　representatives　of

England；　Prussia；　and　Austria　resolved　to　dismember　France。　　The

Prussians　were　to　seize　Alsace　and　Lorraine；　the　Austrians；

Flanders　and　Artois；　the　English；　Dunkirk。　　The　Austrian

ambassador　proposed　to　crush　the　Revolution　by　terror；

‘‘by　exterminating　practically　the　whole　of　the　party　directing

the　nation。''　　In　the　face　of　such　declarations　France　had

perforce　to　conquer　or　to　perish。



During　this　first　coalition；　between　1793　and　1797；　France　had　to

fight　on　all　her　frontiers；　from　the　Pyrenees　to　the　north。



At　the　outset　she　lost　her　former　conquests；　and　suffered　several

reverses。　　The　Spaniards　took　Perpignan　and　Bayonne；　the　English；

Toulon；　and　the　Austrians；　Valenciennes。　　It　was　then　that　the

Convention；　towards　the　end　of　1793；　ordered　a　general　levy　of

all　Frenchmen　between　the　ages　of　eighteen　and　forty；　and

succeeded　in　sending　to　the　frontiers　a　total　of　some　750；000

men。　　The　old　regiments　of　the　royal　army　were　combined　with

battalions　of　volunteers　and　conscripts。



The　allies　were　repulsed；　and　Maubeuge　was　relieved　after　the

victory　of　Wattigny；　which　was　gained　by　Jourdan。　　Hoche　rescued

Lorraine。　　France　took　the　offensive；　reconquering　Belgium　and

the　left　bank　of　the　Rhine。　　Jourdan　defeated　the　Austrians　at

Fleurus；　drove　them　back　upon　the　Rhine；　and　occupied　Cologne　and

Coblentz。　　Holland　was　invaded。　　The　allied　sovereigns　resigned

themselves　to　suing　for　peace；　and　recognised　the　French

conquests。



The　successes　of　the　French　were　favoured　by　the　fact　that　the

enemy　never　put　their　whole　heart　into　the　affair；　as　they　were

preoccupied　by　the　partition　of　Poland；　which　they　effected　in

1793…5。　　Each　Power　wished　to　be　on　the　spot　in　order　to　obtain

more　territory。　　This　motive　had　already　caused　the　King

of　Prussia　to　retire　after　the　battle　of　Valmy　in　1792。



The　hesitations　of　the　allies　and　their　mutual　distrust　were

extremely　advantageous　to　the　French。　　Had　the　Austrians　marched

upon　Paris　in　the　summer　of　1793；　‘‘we　should；''　said　General

Thiebault；　‘‘have　lost　a　hundred　times　for　one。　　They　alone

saved　us；　by　giving　us　time　to　make　soldiers；　officers；　and

generals。''



After　the　treaty　of　Basle；　France　had　no　important　adversaries　on

the　Continent；　save　the　Austrians。　　It　was　then　that　the

Directory　attacked　Austria　in　Italy。　　Bonaparte　was　entrusted

with　the　charge　of　this　campaign。　　After　a　year　of　fighting；　from

April；　1796；　to　April；　1797；　he　forced　the　last　enemies　of　France

to　demand　peace。





3。　　Psychological　and　Military　Factors　which　determined　the

Success　of　the　Revolutionary　Armies。





To　realise　the　causes　of　the　success　of　the　revolutionary　armies

we　must　remember　the　prodigious　enthusiasm；　endurance；　and

abnegation　of　these　ragged　and　often　barefoot　troops。　　Thoroughly

steeped　in　revolutionary　principles；　they　felt　that　they　were　the

apostles　of　a　new　religion；　which　was　destined　to　regenerate　the

world。



The　history　of　the　armies　of　the　Revolution　recalls　that　of　the

nomads　of　Arabia；　who；　excited　to　fanaticism　by　the　ideals　of

Mohammed；　were　transformed　into　formidable　armies　which　rapidly

conquered　a　portion　of　the　old　Roman　world。　　An　analogous　faith

endowed　the　Republican　soldiers　with　a　heroism　and　intrepidity

which　never　failed　them；　and　which　no　reverse　could　shake

When　the　Convention　gave　place　to　the　Directory　they　had

liberated　the　country；　and　had　carried　a　war　of　invasion　into　the

enemy's　territory。　　At　this　period　the　soldiers　were　the　only

true　Republicans　left　in　France。



Faith　is　contagious；　and　the　Revolution　was　regarded　as　a　new

era；　so　that　several　of　the　nations　invaded；　oppressed　by　the

absolutism　of　their　monarchs；　welcomed　the　invaders　as

liberators。　　The　inhabitants　of　Savoy　ran　out　to　meet　the　troops。



At　Mayence　the　crowd　welcomed　them　with　enthusiasm　planted　trees

of　liberty；　and　formed　a　Convention　in　imitation　of　that　of

Paris。



So　long　as　the　armies　of　the　Revolution　had　to　deal　with　peoples

bent　under　the　yoke　of　absolute　monarchy；　and　having　no　personal

ideal　to　defend；　their　success　was　relatively　easy。　　But　when

they　entered　into　conflict　with　peoples　who　had　an　ideal　as

strong　as　their　own　victory　became　far　more　difficult。



The　new　ideal　of　liberty　and　equality　was　capable　of　seducing

peoples　who　had　no　precise　convictions；　and　were　suffering　from

the　despotism　of　their　masters；　but　it　was　naturally　powerless

against　those　who　possessed　a　potent　ideal　of　their　own　which　had

been　long　established　in　their　minds。　　For　this　reason　Bretons

and　Vendeeans；　whose　religious　and　monarchical　sentiments　were

extremely　powerful；　successfully　struggled　for　years　against　the

armies　of　the　Republic。



In　March；　1793；　the　insurrections　of　the　Vendee　and　Brittany

had　spread　to　ten　departments。　　The　Vendeeans　in　Poitou

and　the　Chouans　in　Brittany　put　80；000　men　in　the　field。



The　conflicts　between　contrary　idealsthat　is；　between　beliefs

in　which　reason　can　play　no　partare　always　pitiless；　and　the

struggle　with　the　Vendee　immediately　assumed　the　ferocious

savagery　always　observable　in　religious　wars。　　It　lasted　until

the　end　of　1795；　when　Hoche　finally　‘‘pacified''　the　country。　

This　pacification　was　the　simple　result　of　the　practical

extermination　of　its　defenders。



‘‘After　two　years　of　civil　war；''　writes　Molinari；　‘‘the

Vendee　was　no　more　than　a　hideous　heap　of　ruins。　　About

900；000　individualsmen；　women；　children；　and　aged　peoplehad

perished；　and　the　small　number　of　those　who　had　escaped　massacre

could　scarcely　find　food　or　shelter。　　The　fields　were　devastated；

the　hedges　and　walls　destroyed；　and　the　houses　burned。''



Besides　their　faith；　which　so　often　rendered　them　invincible；　the

soldiers　of　the　Revolution　had　usually　the　advantage　of　being　led

by　remarkable　generals；　full　of　ardour　and　formed　on　the　battle…

field。



The　majority　of　the　former　leaders　of　the　army；　being　nobles；　had

emigrated　so　that　a　new　body　of　officers　had　to　be　organised。　

The　result　was　that　those　gifted　with　innate　military　aptitudes

had　a　chance　of　showing　them；　and　passed　through　all　the　grades

of　rank　in　a　few　months。　　Hoche；　for　instance；　a　corporal　in

1789；　was　a　general　of　division　and　commander　of　an　army　at　the

age　of　twenty…five。　　The　extreme　youth　of　these　leaders　resulted

in　a　spirit　of　aggression　to　which　the　armies　opposed　to　them

were　not　accustomed。　　Selected　only　according　to　merit；

and　hampered　by　no　traditions；　no　routine；　they　quickly　succeeded

in　working　out　a　tactics　suited　to　the　new　necessities。



Of　soldiers　without　experience　opposed　to　seasoned　professional

troops；　drilled　and　trained　according　to　the　methods　in　use

everywhere　since　the　Seven　Years'　War；　one　could　not　expect

complicated　manoeuvres。



Attacks　were　delivered　simply　by　great　masses　of　troops。