the psychology of revolution-第22章

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practical　utility；　it　is　extremely　interesting　from　a

psychological　point　of　view。　　The　philosopher　who　wishes　to

understand　the　working　of　men's　minds　should　always　carefully

consider　the　illusions　which　they　live　with。　　Never；　perhaps；　in

the　course　of　history　have　these　illusions　appeared　so　profound

and　so　numerous　as　during　the　Revolution。



One　of　the　most　prominent　was　the　singular　conception　of　the

nature　of　our　first　ancestors　and　primitive　societies。　

Anthropology　not　having　as　yet　revealed　the　conditions　of　our

remoter　forbears；　men　supposed；　being　influenced　by　the　legends

of　the　Bible；　that　man　had　issued　perfect　from　the　hands　of　the

Creator。　　The　first　societies　were　models　which　were　afterwards

ruined　by　civilisation；　but　to　which　mankind　must　return。　

The　return　to　the　state　of　nature　was　very　soon　the　general　cry。　

‘‘The　fundamental　principle　of　all　morality；　of　which　I　have

treated　in　my　writings；''　said　Rousseau；　‘‘is　that　man　is　a　being

naturally　good；　loving　justice　and　order。''



Modern　science；　by　determining；　from　the　surviving　remnants；　the

conditions　of　life　of　our　first　ancestors；　has　long　ago　shown　the

error　of　this　doctrine。　　Primitive　man　has　become　an　ignorant　and

ferocious　brute；　as　ignorant　as　the　modern　savage　of　goodness；

morality；　and　pity。　　Governed　only　by　his　instinctive　impulses；

he　throws　himself　on　his　prey　when　hunger　drives　him　from　his

cave；　and　falls　upon　his　enemy　the　moment　he　is　aroused　by

hatred。　　Reason；　not　being　born；　could　have　no　hold　over　his

instincts。



The　aim　of　civilisation；　contrary　to　all　revolutionary　beliefs；

has　been　not　to　return　to　the　state　of　nature　but　to　escape　from

it。　　It　was　precisely　because　the　Jacobins　led　mankind　back　to

the　primitive　condition　by　destroying　all　the　social　restraints

without　which　no　civilisation　can　exist　that　they　transformed　a

political　society　into　a　barbarian　horde。



The　ideas　of　these　theorists　concerning　the　nature　of　man　were

about　as　valuable　as　those　of　a　Roman　general　concerning　the

power　of　omens。　　Yet　their　influence　as　motives　of　action　was

considerable。　　The　Convention　was　always　inspired　by　such　ideas。



The　errors　concerning　our　primitive　ancestors　were　excusable

enough；　since　before　modern　discoveries　had　shown　us　the　real

conditions　of　their　existence　these　were　absolutely　unknown。　　But

the　absolute　ignorance　of　human　psychology　displayed　by　the　men

of　the　Revolution　is　far　less　easy　to　understand。



It　would　really　seem　as　though　the　philosophers　and　writers　of

the　eighteenth　century　must　have　been　totally　deficient　in　the

smallest　faculty　of　observation。　　They　lived　amidst　their

contemporaries　without　seeing　them　and　without　understanding

them。　　Above　all；　they　had　not　a　suspicion　of　the　true　nature　of

the　popular　mind。　　The　man　of　the　people　always　appeared　to　them

in　the　likeness　of　the　chimerical　model　created　by　their　dreams。　

As　ignorant　of　psychology　as　of　the　teachings　of　history；　they

considered　the　plebeian　man　as　naturally　good；　affectionate；

grateful；　and　always　ready　to　listen　to　reason。



The　speeches　delivered　by　members　of　the　Assembly　show　how

profound　were　these　illusions。　　When　the　peasants　began　to　burn

the　chateaux　they　were　greatly　astonished；　and　addressed

them　in　sentimental　harangues；　praying　them　to　cease；　in　order

not　to　‘‘give　pain　to　their　good　king；''　and　adjured　them　‘‘to

surprise　him　by　their　virtues。''





2。　　Illusions　respecting　the　Possibility　of　separating　Man　from

his　Past　and　the　Power　of　Transformation　attributed　to　the　Law。





One　of　the　principles　which　served　as　a　foundation　for　the

revolutionary　institutions　was　that　man　may　readily　be　cut　off

from　his　past；　and　that　a　society　may　be　re…made　in　all　its　parts

by　means　of　institutions。　　Persuaded　in　the　light　of　reason　that；

except　for　the　primitive　ages　which　were　to　serve　as　models；　the

past　represented　an　inheritance　of　errors　and　superstitions；　the

legislators　of　the　day　resolved　to　break　entirely　with　that　past。



The　better　to　emphasise　their　intention；　they　founded　a

new　era；　transformed　the　calendar；　and　changed　the　names　of　the

months　and　seasons。



Supposing　all　men　to　be　alike；　they　thought　they　could　legislate

for　the　human　race。　　Condorcet　imagined　that　he　was　expressing　an

evident　truth　when　he　said：　　‘‘A　good　law　must　be　good　for　all

men；　just　as　a　geometrical　proposition　is　true　for　all。''



The　theorists　of　the　Revolution　never　perceived；　behind　the　world

of　visible　things；　the　secret　springs　which　moved　them。　　A

century　of　biological　progress　was　needed　to　show　how　grievous

were　their　mistakes；　and　how　wholly　a　being　of　whatever　species

depends　on　its　past。



With　the　influence　of　the　past；　the　reformers　of　the　Revolution

were　always　clashing；　without　ever　understanding　it。　　They　wanted

to　annihilate　it；　but　were　annihilated　by　it　instead。



The　faith　of　law…makers　in　the　absolute　power　of　laws　and

institutions；　rudely　shaken　by　the　end　of　the　Revolution；　was

absolute　at　its　outbreak。　　Gregoire　said　from　the　tribune　of

the　Constituent　Assembly；　without　provoking　the　least

astonishment：　　‘‘We　could　if　we　would　change　religion；　but　we　do

not　want　to。''　　We　know　that　they　did　want　to　later；　and　we　know

how　miserably　their　attempt　failed。



Yet　the　Jacobins　had　in　their　hands　all　the　elements　of　success。　

Thanks　to　the　completest　of　tyrannies；　all　obstacles　were

removed；　and　the　laws　which　it　pleased　them　to　impose　were　always

accepted。　　After　ten　years　of　violence；　of　destruction　and

burning　and　pillage　and　massacre　and　general　upheaval；

their　impotence　was　revealed　so　startlingly　that　they　fell　into

universal　reprobation。　　The　dictator　then　invoked　by　the　whole　of

France　was　obliged　to　re…establish　the　greater　part　of　that　which

had　been　destroyed。



The　attempt　of　the　Jacobins　to　re…fashion　society　in　the　name　of

pure　reason　constitutes　an　experiment　of　the　highest　interest。　

Probably　mankind　will　never　have　occasion　to　repeat　it　on　so　vast

a　scale。



Although　the　lesson　was　a　terrible　one；　it　does　not　seem　to　have

been　sufficient　for　a　considerable　class　of　minds；　since　even　in

our　days　we　hear　Socialists　propose　to　rebuild　society　from　top

to　bottom　according　to　their　chimerical　plans。





3。　　Illusions　respecting　the　Theoretical　Value　of　the　great

Revolutionary　Principles。



The　fundamental　principles　on　which　the　Revolution　was　based　in

order　to　create　a　new　dispensation　are　contained　in　the

Declarations　of　Rights　which　were　formulated　successively　in

1789；　1793；　and　1795。　　All　three　Declarations　agree　in

proclaiming　that　‘‘the　principle　of　sovereignty　resides　in　the

nation。''



For　the　rest；　the　three　Declarations　differ　on　several　points；

notably　in　the　matter　of　equality。　　That　of　1789　simply　states

（Article　1）：　　‘‘Men　are　born　and　remain　free　and　having　equal

rights。''　　That　of　1793　goes　farther；　and　assures　us　（Article　3）：



‘‘All　men　are　equal　by　nature。''　　That　of　1795　is　more　modest　and

says　（Article　3）：　　‘‘Equality　consists　in　the　law　being　the　same

for　all。''　　Besides　this；　having　mentioned　rights；　the　third

Declaration　considers　it　useful　to　speak　of　duties。　　Its

morality　is　simply　that　of　the　Gospel。　　Article　2　says：　　‘‘All

the　duties　of　a　man　and　a　citizen　derive　from　these　two

principles　engraved　on　all　hearts　by　nature：　do　not　do　unto

others　that　which　you　would　not　they　should　do　unto　you；　do

constantly　unto　others　the　good　you　would　wish　to　receive　from

them。''



The　essential　portions　of　these　proclamations；　the　only　portions

which　have　really　survived；　were　those　relating　to　equality　and

popular　sovereignty。



Despite　the　weakness　of　its　rational　meaning；　the　part　played　by

the　Republican　device；　Liberty；　Equality；　Fraternity；　was

considerable。



This　magic　formula；　which　is　still　left　engraven　on　many　of　our

walls　until　it　shall　be　engraven　on　our　hearts；　has　really

possessed　the　supernatural　power　attributed　to　certain　words　by

the　old　sorcerers。



Thanks　to　the　new　hopes　excited　by　its　promises；　its　power　of

expansion　was　considerable。　　Thousands　of　men　lost　their　lives

for　it。　　Even　in　our　days；　when　a　revolution　breaks　out　in　any

part　of　the　world；　the　same　formula　is　always　invoked。



Its　choice　was　happy　in　the　extreme。　　It　belongs　to　the　category

of　indefinite　dream…evoking　sentences；　which　every　one　is　free　to

interpret　according　to　his　own　desires；　hatreds；　and　hopes。　　In

matters　of　faith　the　real　sense　of　words　matters　very　little；　it

is　the　meaning　attached　to　them　that　makes　their　importance。



Of　the　three　principles　of　the　revolutionary　device；　equality　was

most　fruitful　of　consequences。　　We　shall　see　in　another　part　of

this　book　that　it　is　almost　the　only　one　which　still

survives；　and　is　still　productive　of　effects。



It　was　certainly　not　the　Revolution　that　introduced　the　idea　of

equality　into　the　world。　　Without　going　back　even　to　the　Greek

republics；　we　may　remark　that　the　theory　of　equality　was　taught

in　the　clearest　fashion　by　Christianity　and　Islamism。　　All　men；

subjects　of　the　one　God；　were　equal　before　Him；　and　judged　solely

according　to　their　merits。　　The　dogma　of　the　equality　of　souls

before　God　was　an　essential　dogma　with　Mohammedans　as　well　as

with　Christians。



But　to　proclaim　a　principle　is　not　enough　to　secure　its

observation。　　The　Christian　Church　soon　renounced　its　theoretical

equality；　and　the　men　of　the　Revolution　only　remembered　it　in

their　speeches。



The　sense　of　the　term　‘‘equality''　varies　according　to　the

persons　using　it。　　It　often　conceals　sentiments　very　contrary　to

its　real　sense；　and　then　represents　the　imperious　need　of　having

no　one　above　one；　joined　to　the　no　less　lively　desire　to　feel

above　others。　　With　the　Jacobins　of　the　Revolution；　as　with　those

of　our　days；　the　word　‘‘equality''　simply　involves　a　jealous

hatred　of　all　superiority。　　To　efface　superiority；　such　men

pretend　to　unify　manners；　customs；　and　situations。　　All

despotisms　but　that　exercised　by　themselves　seem　odious。



Not　being　able　to　avoid　the　natural　inequalities；　they　deny　them。



The　second　Declaration　of　Rights；　that　of　1793；　affirms；　contrary

to　the　evidence；　that　‘‘all　men　are　equal　by　nature。''



It　would　seem　that　in　many　of　the　men　of　the　Revolution

the　ardent　desire　for　equality　merely　concealed　an　intense　need

of　inequalities。　　Napoleon　was　obliged　to　re…establish　titles　of

nobility　and　decorations　for　their　benefit。　　Having　shown　that　it

was　among　the　most　rabid　revolutionists　that　he　found　the　most

docile　instruments　of　domination；　Taine　continues：



‘‘Suddenly；　through　all　their　preaching　of　liberty　and　equality；

appeared　their　authoritative　instincts；　their　need　of　commanding；

even　as　subordinates；　and　also；　in　most　cases；　an　appetite　for

money　or　for　pleasu