the psychology of revolution-第20章

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Louis　XVI。　with　respect　and　the　moment　when　his　head　was　cut　off

a　very　few　years　had　elapsed。



These　changes；　superficial　rather　than　profound；　were　in　reality

a　mere　transposition　of　sentiments　of　the　same　order。　　The　love

which　the　men　of　this　period　professed　for　the　king　was

transferred　to　the　new　Government　which　had　inherited　his　power。　

The　mechanism　of　such　a　transfer　may　easily　be　demonstrated。



Under　the　ancien　regime；　the　sovereign；　holding　his　power　by

Divine　right；　was　for　this　reason　invested　with　a　kind　of

supernatural　power。　　His　people　looked　up　to　him　from　every

corner　of　the　country。



This　mystic　belief　in　the　absolute　power　of　royalty　was　shattered

only　when　repeated　experience　proved　that　the　power　attributed　to

the　adored　being　was　fictitious。　　He　then　lost　his　prestige。　

Now；　when　prestige　is　lost　the　crowd　will　not　forgive　the　fallen

idol　for　deluding　them；　and　seek　anew　the　idol　without　which　they

cannot　exist。



From　the　outset　of　the　Revolution　numerous　facts；　which　were

daily　repeated；　revealed　to　the　most　fervent　believers　the　fact

that　royalty　no　longer　possessed　any　power；　and　that　there　were

other　powers　capable；　not　only　of　contending　with　royalty；　but

possessed　of　superior　force。



What；　for　instance；　was　thought　of　the　royal　power　by　the

multitudes　who　saw　the　king　held　in　check　by　the　Assembly；　and

incapable；　in　the　heart　of　Paris；　of　defending　his　strongest

fortress　against　the　attacks　of　armed　bands？



The　royal　weakness　thus　being　obvious；　the　power　of　the　Assembly

was　increasing。　　Now；　in　the　eyes　of　the　crowd　weakness　has　no

prestige；　it　turns　always　to　force。



In　the　Assemblies　feeling　was　very　fluid；　but　did　not　evolve　very

rapidly；　for　which　reason　the　monarchical　faith　survived　the

taking　of　the　Bastille　the　flight　of　the　king；　and　his

understanding　with　foreign　sovereigns。



The　royalist　faith　was　still　so　powerful　that　the　Parisian　riots

and　the　events　which　led　to　the　execution　of　Louis　XVI。　were　not

enough　finally　to　destroy；　in　the　provinces；　the　species

of　secular　piety　which　enveloped　the　old　monarchy。＇8＇







＇8＇　As　an　instance　of　the　depth　of　this　hereditary　love　of　the

people　for　its　kings；　Michelet　relates　the　following　fact；　which

occurred　in　the　reign　of　Louis　XV。：　　‘‘When　it　was　known　in　Paris

that　Louis　XV。；　who　had　left　for　the　army；　was　detained　ill　at

Metz；　it　was　night。　　People　got　up　and　ran　tumultuously　hither

and　thither　without　knowing　where　they　were　going；　the　churches

were　opened　in　the　middle　of　the　night　。　。　。　people　assembled　at

every　cross…road；　jostling　and　questioning　one　another　without

knowing　what　they　were　after。　　In　several　churches　the　priest　who

was　reciting　the　prayer　for　the　king's　health　was　stopped　by　his

tears；　and　the　people　replied　by　sobs　and　cries。　。　。　。　　The

courier　who　brought　the　news　of　his　convalescence　was　embraced

and　almost　stifled；　people　kissed　his　horse；　and　led　him　in

triumph。　。　。　。　　Every　street　resounded　with　a　cry　of　joy：　　‘The

king　is　healed。'　''









It　persisted　in　a　great　part　of　France　during　the　whole　of　the

Revolution；　and　was　the　origin　of　the　royalist　conspiracies　and

insurrections　in　various　departments　which　the　Convention　had

such　trouble　to　suppress。　　The　royalist　faith　had　disappeared　in

Paris；　where　the　weakness　of　the　king　was　too　plainly　visible；

but　in　the　provinces　the　royal　power；　representing　God　on　earth；

still　retained　its　prestige。



The　royalist　sentiments　of　the　people　must　have　been　deeply

rooted　to　survive　the　guillotine。　　The　royalist　movements

persisted；　indeed；　during　the　whole　of　the　Revolution；　and　were

accentuated　under　the　Directory；　when　forty…nine　departments　sent

royalist　deputies　to　Paris；　which　provoked　the　Directory　to　the

coup　d'etat　of　Fructidor。



This　monarchical…feeling；　with　difficulty　repressed　by　the

Revolution；　contributed　to　the　success　of　Bonaparte　when　he　came

to　occupy　the　throne　of　the　ancient　kings；　and　in　great　measure

to　re…establish　the　ancien　regime。







CHAPTER　III



MENTAL　ANARCHY　AT　THE　TIME　OF　THE　REVOLUTION　AND　THE　INFLUENCE

ATTRIBUTED　TO　THE　PHILOSOPHERS



1。　　Origin　and　Propagation　of　Revolutionary　Ideas。



The　outward　life　of　men　in　every　age　is　moulded　upon　an　inward

life　consisting　of　a　framework　of　traditions；　sentiments；　and

moral　influences　which　direct　their　conduct　and　maintain　certain

fundamental　notions　which　they　accept　without　discussion。



Let　the　resistance　of　this　social　framework　weaken；　and　ideas

which　could　have　had　no　force　before　will　germinate　and　develop。　

Certain　theories　whose　success　was　enormous　at　the　time　of　the

Revolution　would　have　encountered　an　impregnable　wall　two

centuries　earlier。



The　aim　of　these　considerations　is　to　recall　to　the　reader　the

fact　that　the　outward　events　of　revolutions　are　always　a

consequence　of　invisible　transformations　which　have　slowly　gone

forward　in　men's　minds。　　Any　profound　study　of　a　revolution

necessitates　a　study　of　the　mental　soil　upon　which　the　ideas　that

direct　its　course　have　to　germinate。



Generally　slow　in　the　extreme；　the　evolution　of　ideas　is　often

invisible　for　a　whole　generation。　　Its　extent　can　only　be　grasped

by　comparing　the　mental　condition　of　the　same　social

classes　at　the　two　extremities　of　the　curve　which　the　mind　has

followed。　　To　realise　the　different　conceptions　of　royalty

entertained　by　educated　men　under　Louis　XIV。　and　Louis　XVI。；　we

must　compare　the　political　theories　of　Bossuet　and　Turgot。



Bossuet　expressed　the　general　conceptions　of　his　time　concerning

the　absolute　monarchy　when　he　based　the　authority　of　a　Government

upon　the　will　of　God；　‘‘sole　judge　of　the　actions　of　kings；

always　irresponsible　before　men。''　　Religious　faith　was　then　as

strong　as　the　monarchical　faith　from　which　it　seemed　inseparable；

and　no　philosopher　could　have　shaken　it。



The　writings　of　the　reforming　ministers　of　Louis　XVI。；　those　of

Turgot；　for　instance；　are　animated　by　quite　another　spirit。　　Of

the　Divine　right　of　kings　there　is　hardly　a　word；　and　the　rights

of　the　peoples　begin　to　be　clearly　defined。



Many　events　had　contributed　to　prepare　for　such　an　evolution

unfortunate　wars；　famines；　imposts；　general　poverty　at　the　end　of

the　reign　of　Louis　XV。；　&c。　　Slowly　destroyed；　respect　for

monarchical　authority　was　replaced　by　a　mental　revolt　which　was

ready　to　manifest　itself　as　soon　as　occasion　should　arise。



When　once　the　mental　framework　commences　to　crumble　the　end　comes

rapidly。　　This　is　why　at　the　time　of　the　Revolution　ideas　were　so

quickly　propagated　which　were　by　no　means　new；　but　which　until

then　had　exerted　no　influence；　as　they　had　not　fallen　on　fruitful

ground。



Yet　the　ideas　which　were　then　so　attractive　and　effectual　had

often　been　expressed。　　For　a　long　time　they　had　inspired　the

politics　of　England。　　Two　thousand　years　earlier　the　Greek　and

Latin　authors　had　written　in　defence　of　liberty；　had

cursed　tyrants；　and　proclaimed　the　rights　of　popular　sovereignty。



The　middle　classes　who　effected　the　Revolution；　although；　like

their　fathers；　they　had　learned　all　these　things　in　text…books；

were　not　in　any　degree　moved　by　them；　because　the　moment　when

such　ideas　could　move　them　had　not　arrived。　　How　should　the

people　have　been　impressed　by　them　at　a　time　when　all　men　were

accustomed　to　regard　all　hierarchies　as　natural　necessities？



The　actual　influence　of　the　philosophers　in　the　genesis　of　the

Revolution　was　not　that　which　was　attributed　to　them。　　They

revealed　nothing　new；　but　they　developed　the　critical　spirit

which　no　dogma　can　resist　once　the　way　is　prepared　for　its

downfall。



Under　the　influence　of　this　developing　critical　spirit　things

which　were　no　longer　very　greatly　respected　came　to　be　respected

less　and　less。　　When　tradition　and　prestige　had　disappeared　the

social　edifice　suddenly　fell。



This　progressive　disaggregation　finally　descended　to　the　people；

but　was　not　commenced　by　the　people。　　The　people　follows

examples；　but　never　sets　them。



The　philosophers；　who　could　not　have　exerted　any　influence　over

the　people；　did　exert　a　great　influence　over　the　enlightened

portion　of　the　nation。　　The　unemployed　nobility；　who　had　long

been　ousted　from　their　old　functions；　and　who　were　consequently

inclined　to　be　censorious；　followed　their　leadership。　　Incapable

of　foresight；　the　nobles　were　the　first　to　break　with　the

traditions　that　were　their　only　raison　d'etre。　　As　steeped

in　humanitarianism　and　rationalism　as　the　bourgeoisie　of　to…

day；　they　continually　sapped　their　own　privileges　by　their

criticisms。　　As　to…day；　the　most　ardent　reformers　were　found

among　the　favourites　of　fortune。　　The　aristocracy　encouraged

dissertations　on　the　social　contract；　the　rights　of　man；　and　the

equality　of　citizens。　　At　the　theatre　it　applauded　plays　which

criticised　privileges；　the　arbitrariness　and　the　incapacity　of

men　in　high　places；　and　abuses　of　all　kinds。



As　soon　as　men　lose　confidence　in　the　foundations　of　the　mental

framework　which　guides　their　conduct　they　feel　at　first　uneasy

and　then　discontented。　　All　classes　felt　their　old　motives　of

action　gradually　disappearing。　　Things　that　had　seemed　sacred　for

centuries　were　now　sacred　no　longer。



The　censorious　spirit　of　the　nobility　and　of　the　writers　of　the

day　would　not　have　sufficed　to　move　the　heavy　load　of　tradition；

but　that　its　action　was　added　to　that　of　other　powerful

influences。　　We　have　already　stated；　in　citing　Bossuet；　that

under　the　ancien　regime　the　religious　and　civil　governments；

widely　separated　in　our　days；　were　intimately　connected。　　To

injure　one　was　inevitably　to　injure　the　other。　　Now；　even　before

the　monarchical　idea　was　shaken　the　force　of　religious　tradition

was　greatly　diminished　among　cultivated　men。　　The　constant

progress　of　knowledge　had　sent　an　increasing　number　of　minds　from

theology　to　science　by　opposing　the　truth　observed　to　the　truth

revealed。



This　mental　evolution；　although　as　yet　very　vague；　was　sufficient

to　show　that　the　traditions　which　for　so　many　centuries　had

guided　men　had　not　the　value　which　had　been　attributed　to　them；

and　that　it　would　soon　be　necessary　to　replace　them。



But　where　discover　the　new　elements　which　might；　take　the　place

of　tradition？　　Where　seek　the　magic　ring　which　would　raise　a　new

social　edifice　on　the　remains　of　that　which　no　longer　contented

men？



Men　were　agreed　in　attributing　to　reason　the　power　that　tradition

and　the　gods　seemed　to　have　lost。　　How　could　its　force　be

doubted？　　Its　discoveries　having　been　innumerable；　was　it　not

legitimate　to　suppose　that　by　applying　it　to　the　construction　of

societies　it　would　entirely　transform　them？　　Its　possible

function　increased　very　rapidly　in　the　thoughts　of　the　more

enlightened；　in　proportion　as　tradition　see