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helping other people 
2。 Altruism�此�refers to the prosocial behaviors a person carries out 
without considering his or her own safety or interests 
3。 Reciprocal altruism suggests that people perform altruistic behaviors 
because they�察�in some sense�察�expect that others will perform altruistic 
behaviors for them 
B。 Motives for Prosocial Behavior 
1。 Research suggests that there are four forces that prompt people to 
act for the public good�此�
a�� Altruism�此�Acting in response to a motive to benefit others�察�as 
in the case of the driver who saved another person¨s life 

b�� Egoism�此�Performing prosocial behaviors ultimately in one¨s 
own self´interest�察�someone might perform a helping 
behavior to receive a similar favor in return or a reward 

358 


CHAPTER 18�此�SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY�察�SOCIETY�察�AND CULTURE 

c�� Collectivism�此�Performing prosocial behaviors to benefit a 
particular group�察�people might perform helping behaviors to 
improve circumstances for their families�察�fraternities�察�
political parties�察�and so on 

d�� Principlism�此�Performing prosocial behaviors to uphold moral 
principles�察�someone might act in a prosocial manner because 
of a religious or civic principle 

2。 The principle of justice suggests that each person should have an 
equal probability of getting the positive or negative oute 
3。 The empathy´altruism hypothesis suggests that when one feels 
empathy toward another individual�察�those feelings evoke an 
altruistic motive to provide help 
C。 The Effects of the Situation on Prosocial Behavior 
1。 Bystander Intervention�察�people¨s willingness to help strangers in 
distress�察�is sensitive to characteristics of the situation 
a�� Latan┬ and Darley¨s research indicates likelihood of 
intervention is dependent on number of bystanders the 
participant thought were present 

b�� Diffusion of responsibility occurs when more than one person 
who could help is present。 Others assume that someone else 
will or should help 

2。 Facets of emergency situations�此�
a�� Bystanders must notice the emergency 

b�� Bystanders must label events as an emergency 

c�� Bystander must feel responsibility 

II。Aggression 
A。 Evolutionary Perspectives 
1。 Aggression is behavior that causes psychological or physical harm to 
another individual 
2。 Animals may mit aggressive behaviors to ensure themselves 
access to desired mates and to protect the resources that allow 
themselves and their offspring to survive 
3。 Lorenz argued that�察�unlike most other species�察�humans did not have 
appropriately evolved mechanisms to inhibit their aggressive 
impulses。 Because of this�察�Lorenz declared humans to be at the 
pinnacle of aggression 
4。 Research has contradicted Lorenz¨s contention in two ways 
a�� Field research with a variety of animal species suggests that 
many other species mit the same range of aggressive 
acts as do humans 

b�� Humans have more inhibitory control over their use of 

359 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

aggression than Lorenz suggested 

5。 Although Lorenz¨s idea may be flawed�察�the general idea that 
aggressive responses are part of human¨s genetic endowment is on 
firm ground 
B。 Individual Differences 
1。 Research has focused on brain and hormonal differences that may 
mark a predisposition toward aggressive behavior 
2。 High levels of serotonin may impair the brain¨s ability to regulate 
negative emotions and impulsive behavior 
3。 Studies also suggest that some individual differences in aggression 
may reflect muted stress responses 
C。 Situational Influences 
1。 The Frustration´Aggression Hypothesis suggests that frustration occurs 
in situations in which people are prevented from obtaining their 
goals�察�a rise in frustration leads to a greater probability of aggression 
2。 Research suggests that there is a positive relationship between 
temperature and aggression 
3。 If you believe that someone did something intentionally to anger or 
upset you�察�you are more likely to respond with aggression 
4。 Some aggression is instrumental in that it is performed in order to 
achieve an end 
D。 Cultural Constraints 
1。 Whether an individual will display aggression is highly constrained 
by cultural values and norms 
2。 Construal of self plays a role in aggressive behavior 
a�� Individuals in cultures that value interdependence are less 
likely to respond aggressively 

b�� A culture of honor guides behavior in southern states because 
even small disputes bee contests for reputation and 
social status 

3。 Norms of Aggressive Behavior 
a�� The availability of aggressive models in the environment�察�
such as that shown on television�察�influence aggressive 
behavior�察�especially of children 

b�� Exposure to violence at home and in the munity is also a 
factor in aggression 

III。 Prejudice 
A。 Definition 
1。 No human weakness is more destructive of the dignity of the 
individual and the social bonds of humanity than prejudice 
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CHAPTER 18�此�SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY�察�SOCIETY�察�AND CULTURE 

2。 Prejudice is a learned attitude toward a target object�察�involving 
negative feelings ��dislike or fear���察�negative beliefs ��stereotypes�� that 
justify that attitude�察�and a behavioral intention to avoid�察�control�察�
dominate�察�or eliminate those in the target group 
3。 A false belief qualifies as prejudice when it resists change even in the 
face of appropriate evidence of its falseness 
B。 Origins of Prejudice 
1。 Social categorization is the process by which people organize their 
social environment by categorizing themselves and others into 
groups 
2。 People divide the world into in´groups�察�the groups with which they 
identify as members�察�and out´groups�察�the groups with which they do 
not identify 
a�� In´group bias is the evaluation of one¨s own group as better 
than others 

b�� People defined as part of the out´group almost instantly are 
candidates for hostile feelings and unfair treatment 

c�� Automatic acts of prejudice develop as a function of 
messages the individual has unknowingly internalized 

C。 Effects of Stereotyping 
1。 Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of people in which the 
same characteristics are assigned to all members of the group 
2。 Because stereotypes powerfully encode expectations�察�they contribute 
to the social construction of reality。 Stereotypes influence judgments 
about what exists in the environment 
3。 Stereotype threatoccurs when people are placed in situations to which 
negative aspects of stereotypes are relevant 
4。 Research leads to the conclusion that prejudice is easy to create�察�but 
difficult to remove 
D。 Reversing Prejudice 
1。 Sherif¨s Robbers Cave experiment brought two groups of boys 
together at a summer camp。 The experiment found�此�
a�� Minimal groups can lead to great hostility 
b�� Unsuccessful attempts at hostility reduction 

��i�� Propaganda approach 
��ii�� Nonpetitive circumstances were effective。 
c�� Cooperative action and shared goals was successful in 
reduction of hostilities 

361 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

d�� The lesson of the Robbers Cave is that the elimination of 
prejudice takes more than mere contact between groups。 A 
program that effectively bats prejudice must foster 
personal interaction in the pursuit of shared goals 

2。 In a jigsaw classroom�察�each pupil is given a part of the total material to 
master and then share with the other group members。 Interracial 
conflict and academic performance improve in classes where the 
jigsaw technique is applied 
3。 Deprovincialization involves people learning more about out´group 
social norms and customs and being less ^provincial ̄ about the 
correctness of the in´group 
IV。 The Psychology of Conflict and Peace 
A。 Peace psychology represents an interdisciplinary approach to prevention of nuclear war 
and the concurrent maintenance of peace 
1。 Aims of peace psychology include understanding of forces that give 
rise to false beliefs�察�misperceptions�察�and erroneous attributions on 
issues germane to nuclear arms�察�military strength�察�national security�察�
and an understanding of how nations negotiate and make judgments 
in crisis situations 
B。 Obedience to Authority�CMilgram¨s obedience to authority 
1。 The Obedience Paradigm 
a�� Participants delivered what they believed to be electric 
shocks to another individual 

��i�� Participants¨ social role was that of teacher�察�with 
teacher punishing errors made by the learner 
��ii�� Teachers followed rule of increasing level of shock 
after each error�察�until learning was errorless 
��iii�� Experimenter was the legitimate authority�察�
presented rules and assigned roles 
��iv�� Dependent variable was final level of shock that a 
teacher gave before refusing to continue obeying 
authority 
2。 The Test Situation 
a�� Experiment staged to convince teachers ��participants�� they 
were causing pain and suffering�察�perhaps even death to 
another person。 In fact�察�no electric shock was given 

b�� Learner ��confederate�� was to memorize word pairs and 
make prearranged errors 

c�� Teachers were to shock learner following each error�察�
increasing shock level with each error 

d�� Learner ^protested ̄ as shock level increased until teacher 
hesitated or protested delivery of the next shock 

e�� Experimenter told teacher to continue 

362 


CHAPTER 18�此�SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY�察�SOCIETY�察�AND CULTURE 

��i�� Most participants plained or protested more�察�
saying they could not continue 
��ii�� Female participants were often in tears 
f�� Experimental situation produced great conflict in 
participants 

3。 Results 
a�� Psychiatrists had predicted participants would not ^shock ̄ 
above 150 volts�察�presuming that only abnormal individuals 
would blindly obey orders to harm another person 

b�� Psychiatrists based their evaluations on the presumed 
dispositional qualities of participants�察�overlooking the power 
of the situation 

c�� The majority of participants obeyed the authority fully。 They 
may have dissented�察�but they did not disobey 

d�� Alternative explanations of results 

��i�� Participants may not have believed they were 
actually shocking the confederate 
��ii�� Participant¨s obedience may have been a function of 
demand characteristics of the situation 
4。 Why do people obey authority�拭�
a�� Power of the situation 

��i�� Obedience is due to situational�察�rather than 
personality variables 
��ii�� Obedience is high when obedience is first modeled 
by a peer or when a participant acts as an 
intermediary bystander 
b�� Data indicate situational control of behavior�察�rather than 
individual differences in participants 

c�� Other reasons include normative and informational sources 
of influence´people want to be liked and correct 

d�� In ambiguous situations�察�people rely on others for cues for 
appropriate behavior 

e�� Participants were probably be confused about how to 
disobey 

f�� Obedience to authority is ingrained in childhood´obey 
authority without question 

5。 The Milgram experiments and You 
a�� Resisting situational forces requires both awareness and 
acceptance of the fact that those forces can be powerful 
enough to affect almost anyone 

b�� Even normal�察�well´meaning individuals are subject to 

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