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伉尖僥嚥伏試-及53嫗

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emerge and change over time 
B。 Piaget¨s Insights into Mental Development 
1。 Piaget saw the mind as an active biological system�察�seeking�察�selecting�察�
interpreting�察�and reorganizing environmental information to fit with 
or adjust to its own existing mental structures 
2。 Piaget¨s interest was not in the amount of information children 
possessed�察�but in the ways children¨s thinking and inner 
representations of outer physical reality changed at different stages in 
their development 
3。 Schemes are the mental structures enabling the individual to interpret 
the world 
a�� Schemes are the building blocks of development change 

b�� Piaget characterized infants¨ initial schemes as sensorimotor 
intelligence 

��i�� First dependent on physical presence of objects that 
could be sucked�察�watched�察�or grasped 
��ii�� Later�察�mental structures increasingly incorporate 
symbolic representations of outer reality 
4。 Piaget saw cognitive development as the result of the interweaving of 
assimilation and acmodation。 These two processes work in tandem 
to achieve cognitive growth 

a�� Assimilation modifies new environmental information to fit 
into what is already known 

b�� Acmodation restructures or modifies the child¨s existing 
schemes so that new information is accounted for more 
pletely 

c�� Discrepancies between already held ideas and new 
experiences force development of more adaptive inner 
structures and processes that permit creative and appropriate 
actions to meet future challenges 

5。 Stages in Cognitive Development 
a�� Sensorimotor stage�此�infancy�察�roughly from birth to age 2 

��i�� Child is tied to the immediate environment and 
motor´action themes 
��ii�� Most important cognitive acquisition of infancy is 
attainment of object permanence�察�the ability to form 
mental representations of absent objects 
b�� Preoperational stage�此�roughly 2 to 7 years of age 

��i�� Main cognitive advance is improved ability to 
mentally represent objects not physically present 
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CHAPTER 11�此�HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

��ii�� Piaget characterized this stage in terms of what the 
child cannot do�察�other than the development of 
representational thought 
��iii�� Child¨s thoughts at this stage are characterized by 
egocentrism�察�an inability to take the perspective of 
another�察�or to imagine a scene from any perspective 
other than one¨s own�察�as demonstrated by Piaget¨s 
three´mountain task 

��iv�� Children at this stage have difficulty distinguishing 
the mental from the physical world�察�as demonstrated 
by animistic thought 
��v�� Centration is the tendency to be captivated ��centrated�� 
by the more perceptually striking features of objects 
c�� Concrete operational stage�此�roughly ages 7 to 11 years of age 

��i�� Child is capable of mental operations 
��ii�� Mastery of conservation is a hallmark of this stage 
��iii�� Children at this stage generally do not ask abstract 
questions�察�but remain with specifics 
d�� Formal operational stage�此�roughly from age 11 on 

��i�� Represent the final stage of cognitive growth�察�in 
which thinking bees abstract 
��ii�� Adolescents realize their reality is only one of several 
that are imaginable�察�and begin pondering deeper 
questions of truth�察�justice�察�and existence 
��iii�� Individual begins to impose his/her own structures 
on tasks�察�beginning with broad categories�察�then 
formulating and testing hypotheses in light of the 
individual¨s knowledge of categories and 
relationships 
C。 Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development 
1。 Contemporary research posits a greater degree of order�察�organization�察�
and coherence in the perceptual and cognitive experience of the infant 
and young child than that proposed by Piaget 
2。 Recent research shows that differences in conceptual understanding 
between preoperational and concrete operational children may be a 
difference in immediate memory 
a�� The sensorimotor child revisited�此�3´month´old neonates may 
have already developed the concept of object permanence�察�as 
well as being able to integrate information across sensory 
domains 

b�� The preoperational child revisited 

��i�� Egocentrism may not be ongoing�察�as recent research 
indicates the child to have the ability to take the 
perspective of the other if the task is simple 
��ii�� Children at this stage also have the ability to 
differentiate mental and physical worlds�察�if they are 
asked the correct questions 
��iii�� Recent research indicates the preoperational child is 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

not exclusively centrated 

3。 Children¨s Foundational Theories 
a�� Recent research explores the notion that changes occur 
separately�察�in several domains�察�as the child develops 
foundational theories�察�or frameworks for initial 
understanding�察�to explain experiences of the world 

b�� Children accumulate experiences into a theory of mind�察�
through performing the functions of psychologists 

c�� Children must be young practitioners of disciplines such as 
physics and biology in order to perfect their understanding of 
various aspects of the world 

4。 Social and Cultural Influences on Cognitive Development 
a�� Late in his life�察�Piaget began to question the cross´cultural 
validity of his findings。 Research has since shown that there 
are cross´cultural differences in cognitive development。 

b�� Vygotsky argued that children developed through a process of 
internalization�察�that they absorb knowledge from their social 
context。 

c�� The concept of internalization helps to explain the effect 
culture has on cognitive development。 

D。 Cognitive Development in Adulthood 
1。 Intelligence 
a�� Only about 5 percent of the healthy elderly experience a major 
loss in cognitive functioning 

b�� Age´related decline in functioning is usually limited to only 
some abilities�察�such as 

��i�� Difficulty in forming new associations 
��ii�� Slower acquisition of new information 
c�� As pared to crystallized intelligence�察�only fluid 
intelligence shows a slight decline with increasing age 

d�� Wisdom�察�experience in the fundamental pragmatics of life�察�may 
experience age´related gains 

2。 Elderly individuals who pursue high levels of environmental 
stimulation tend to maintain high levels of cognitive functioning 
a�� Disuse�察�rather than decay�察�may be responsible for isolated 
deficits in cognitive functioning 

b�� Successful aging may be linked to a strategy of selective 
optimization with pensation 

��i�� Selective means scaling down the number and extent 
of goals 
��ii�� Optimization refers to exercising or training oneself in 
areas of individual highest priority 
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CHAPTER 11�此�HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

��iii�� pensation means using alternative methods of 
dealing with losses�察�such as choosing age´friendly 
environments 
3。 Memory 
a�� Not all memory systems show age´related deficits�察�general 
knowledge store and personal information does not appear to 
diminish 

b�� Older adults do experience difficulty in acquisition of new 
information 

c�� Elderly individuals¨ memory performance may be impaired by 
their belief that their memory will be poor 

d�� Certain age´related neurobiological changes may result in 
impaired memory�此�

��i�� Loss or decay of cells in the brain 
��ii�� Deficiencies in neurotransmitters 
��iii�� Patients with Alzheimer¨s disease experience gradual 
loss of memory�察�as well as deterioration of 
personality�察�which 
��a�� Affects \5�ァ�of individuals past age 65 and 
\20�ァ�of individuals past age 80 
��b�� Deceptively mild onset 
��c�� Steady deterioration�察�including 
��d�� Gradual personality changes 
��e�� Inattentiveness and mutism 
��f�� Lack of ability to care for oneself 
��g�� Loss of memory for who they are 
��h�� Eventual death 
IV。 Acquiring Language 
A。 Most researchers agree that the ability to learn language is biologically based�Cthat it is an 
innate capacity 
1。 Perceiving Speech and Perceiving Words�此�A child¨s first step in acquiring 
language is noting sound contrasts that are used meaningfully in that 
language 
a�� When using signed languages�察�the child must attend to 
contrasts in such things as positions of the hands 

b�� Minimal meaningful units in speech are phonemes 

c�� Children habituate to phonemes�察�learning to distinguish 
between different sounds 

B。 Learning Word Meanings 
1。 Naming explosion occurs at about 18 months 
2。 Average 6´year´old understands about 14��000 words 
3。 Children develop hypotheses about meanings of words�察�which may 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

result in 

a�� Overextensions�此�incorrect use of words to cover a wide range of 
subjects�察�such as using ^doggie ̄ for any four´legged animal 

b�� Underextensions�此�such as thinking ^doggie ̄ refers only to the 
family pet 

c�� Hypotheses may be constrained by mutual exclusivity�察�in 
which the child may act as if each object must have only one 
label 

4。 Bootstrapping occurs when children make use of what they already 
know to acquire new meanings 
C。 Acquiring Grammar 
1。 Grammar is the rules by which units of meaning are bined into 
larger units 
2。 Chomsky argued that children are born with mental structures that 
facilitate the prehension and production of language�察�thus 
removing some parental pressures to teach grammar explicitly 
a�� Referential children¨s vocabularies consist largely of nouns 

b�� Expressive children¨s vocabularies consist largely of 
formulaic expressions 

c�� Referential and expressive children appear to believe�察�at an 
early age�察�in different functions for language�察�and follow 
different paths to acquisition of grammar 

D。 Language´Making Capacity 
1。 Aspects of acquisition are believed to be biologically predetermined 
2。 Children bring innate guidelines to the task of learning a particular 
language 
3。 Slobin defined a set of operating principles that constitute the child¨s 
language´making capacity 
a�� Operating principles take the form of directives to the child 

b�� Principles are encoded as part of the human genome。 
Examples include�此�

��i�� Telegraphic speech�此�use of two´word phrases which 
lack functions 
��ii�� Extensions�此�the child¨s attempts to try ��in all cases�� and 
use the same unit of meaning ��morpheme�� to mark the 
same concept�察�often resulting in over regularization 

V。Social Development Across the Life Span 
A。 Social development concerns how individuals¨ social interactions and expectations 
change across the life span 
190 


CHAPTER 11�此�HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

B。 Erikson¨s Psychosocial Stages 
1。 Erikson proposed that there are eight stages of psychosocial 
development across the life span 
2。 Each stage presents a conflict for resolution。 Conflicts at each stage 
must be successfully resolved in order to cope successfully with 
subsequent stages 
3。 Stages�察�crises�察�and approximate age range for each�此�
a�� Trust vs。 mistrust�此�child¨s sense of safety vs。 insecurity�察�birth to 

1。5 years 
b�� Autonomy vs。 self´doubt�此�sense of self´efficacy vs。 feelings of 
inadequacy�察�1。5 to 3 years 

c�� Initiative vs。 guilt�此�confidence in self as an initiator vs。 feelings 
of lack of self´worth�察�3 to 6 years 


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