心理学与生活-第17章

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human　or　nonhuman；　and　to　optimize　the　possible　benefits　to　the　participants　
and　to　society　
D。　Intentional　Deception：　APA　guidelines　make　it　clear　that　intentional　deception　is　justified　only　if：　
1。　The　study　has　sufficient　scientific　and　educational　importance　to　warrant　
deception　
2。　There　is　no　equally　effective　alternative　to　deception　
3。　Participants　are　not　deceived　concerning　aspects　of　the　experiment　that　would　
affect　their　willingness　to　participate　
4。　The　deception；　and　the　reasons　for　it；　is　fully　explained　to　the　participants　at　
the　conclusion　of　the　research　
E。　Debriefing　
1。　At　the　conclusion　of　participation　in　an　experiment；　each　participant　must　be　
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told　the　rationale　for　the　experiment。　This　debriefing　gives　the　participant　an　
opportunity　to　learn　about　psychology　and　themselves；　and　allows　them　to　
appreciate　more　fully　their　experience　in　the　experiment。　

F。　Issues　in　Animal　Research：　Science；　Ethics；　Politics　
1。　The　benefits　of　animal　research　include：　development　and　assessment　of　drugs　
that　treat　anxiety；　mental　illness；　and　Parkinson’s　disease；　knowledge　about　
drug　addition　and　neuromuscular　disorders；　and　possible　treatments　and　
cures　for　AIDS。　Animal　research　not　only　benefits　humans；　but　has　led　to　many　
important　vaccines　for　animals　as　well。　
2。　Despite　these　acplishments；　some　believe　that　it　is　immoral　and　
inappropriate　to　use　animals　in　research。　
a）　Animals　cannot　be　informed　about　the　nature　of　the　experiment　and　
thus　cannot　give　their　informed　consent；　as　the　APA　requires　with　
humans。　

b）　Because　of　the　sensitive　nature　of　the　debate　and　the　fact　that　animals　
cannot　give　informed　consent；　reasoned　proponents　of　animal　rights　
create　a　moral　context　in　which　individual　researchers　must　judge　
their　research　under　the　highest　level　of　passion　and　scrutiny　

c）　Just　as　it　has　for　human　participants；　the　APA　has　set　strict　guidelines　
for　the　treatment　of　nonhuman　participants。　These　guidelines　state　
that：　

（i）　Facilities　for　nonhuman　participants　must　be　adequate　in　
size；　be　well　maintained；　and　have　qualified　staff　
（ii）　The　health　of　the　animals　and　their　general　well…being　must　
be　monitored　
（iii）　Every　effort　must　be　made　to　minimize　pain　and　disfort　
for　the　animals　
（iv）　Alternative；　less　stressful　procedures；　such　as　puter　
modeling；　must　be　used　whenever　possible　
V。Being　a　Wiser　Research　Consumer　
A。　One　goal　of　Psychology　and　Life；　16th　Edition　is　to　help　your　students　bee　more　critical　
thinkers。　Critical　thinking　goes　beyond　the　information　given　and　delves　beneath　slick　appearances；　
with　the　goal　of　understanding　substance　without　being　seduced　by　style。　Some　general　rules　to　keep　
in　mind　to　be　a　more　critical　thinker　include：　
1。　Avoid　the　assumption　that　correlation　equals　causation。　It　does　not。　
2。　Be　sure　that　critical　terms　and　concepts　are　operationally　defined　so　that　you　
can　be　sure　of　their　meaning　
3。　Before　seeking　confirming　evidence　for　a　theory；　look　for　disconfirming　
evidence。　Confirming　evidence　is　easy　to　find　when　you　are　looking　for　it。　
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4。　Always　seek　alternative　explanations　that　explain　results　more　simply　or　
pletely；　especially　when　researchers　have　a　stake　in　the　proposed　
explanation。　Occam’s　Razor　is　a　rule　of　thumb　that　proposes　that　
parsimonious；　simple　explanations　are　preferable　to　plex　ones。　
5。　Be　alert　for　signs　that　personal　biases　may　have　distorted　the　research　process　
and　findings　
6。　Be　suspicious　of　simple　answers　to　plex　problems　
7。　When　confronted　with　claims　that　something　is　more　effective；　better；　or　
superior；　be　sure　that　you　understand　to　what　it　is　being　pared　
8。　Maintain　an　open　mind　and　a　healthy　skepticism。　All　conclusions　are　subject　
to　revision；　and　some　truly　novel；　bizarre　ideas　will　be　correct。　
9。　Challenge　authority　that　is　unjust；　values　opinion　over　evidence；　and　is　not　
open　to　constructive　criticism　
10。　Of　course；　all　of　these　suggestions　should　be　applied　to　your　reading　of　
Psychology　and　Life！　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　What　role　does　the　scientific　method　play　in　contemporary　psychology？　What　are　the　limitations　of　
the　scientific　method；　and　are　there　any　better　alternatives　available？　Students　are　often　skeptical　of　
the　scientific　method　and　are　eager　to　point　out　its　flaws；　such　as　the　slow　incremental　progress　it　
generates；　its　reliance　on　measurable　phenomena；　its　susceptibility　to　experimenter　biases；　and　its　
sterile　methodology。　Students　often　fail　to　realize；　however；　that；　although　it　may　be　flawed；　the　
scientific　method　is　the　best　tool　we　have　to　generate　valid；　reliable　knowledge　and　that　it　has　
provided　us　with　a　wealth　of　discoveries。　
2。　What　psychological　principles　have　bee　part　of　the　larger　culture；　have　penetrated　our　thinking　
and　language？　Psychological　principles　permeate　advertising；　marketing；　television；　movies；　sales；　
self…help　books；　fashion；　politics；　and　folk　wisdom；　to　name　a　few；　but　students　are　often　unaware　of　
this　influence。　Pointing　out　this　influence　is　a　good　way　to　keep　your　students’　interest。　For　
example；　the　concept　of　“psychological　stress；”　so　prevalent　in　our　cultural　landscape；　was　rarely　
mentioned　50　years　ago。　
3。　Ask　your　students　how　many　of　them　believe　in　determinism。　Then　ask　them　many　of　them　believe　
in　free　will。　Insist　that　they　cannot　have　it　both　ways。　You　will　be　surprised　to　find　that　many；　if　not　
most；　students　believe　in　free　will。　This　is　a　terrific　discussion　starter；　because　it　conflicts　with　one　
of　the　fundamental　assumptions　of　science　and　psychology–determinism。　You　might　ask　your　
students　what　science　can　hope　to　reveal　if　the　world　is　not　determined。　You　might　also　suggest　
that　what　feels　like　free　will　to　us　may　be　thinly　disguised　determinism。　This　simple　discussion　is　
often　enough　to　change　the　manner　in　which　students　view　themselves　and　the　manner　in　which　
they　view　those　around　them。　
SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

The　Ethics　of　Animal　Research　

The　use　of　animals　in　research　is　a　controversial　topic；　and　one　certain　to　generate　animated　class　
discussion。　One　reason　that　it　is　controversial　is　that　it　touches　on　fundamental　values；　attitudes；　and　
ethical　and　moral　issues。　Psychologists　are　interested　in　these　issues　from　both　a　scientific　and　a　human　
perspective。　As　scientists；　psychologists　may　ask　why　others　are　so　emotionally　captivated　by　the　issue；　
why　some　individuals　seem　more　concerned　with　protecting　animals　than　with　protecting　humans；　why　a　
secure　life　in　a　cage　is　worse　than　an　uncertain　life　in　the　wild；　and　what　scientific　justification　there　is　to　
preclude　research　on　animals。　As　humans；　psychologists　may　be　moved　by　passion　for　caged　animals；　
feel　empathy　at　the　animals　lack　of　understanding　of　what　is　happening　to　them；　and　be　morally　convinced　
that　researchers　have　no　more　right　to　force　an　animal　to　participate　in　research　than　they　do　in　forcing　
humans　to　participate。　

Of　course；　there　are　no　easy　answers　to　these　questions；　but　there　is　an　interesting　way　to　view　animal　
research　that　many　people　have　not　considered。　Animal　research　benefits　humans　to　the　extent　that　
findings　from　research　with　them　are　generalizable　to　humans。　Because　of　this　problem　of　transfer　of　results　
from　animals　to　humans；　the　most　beneficial　research　is　often　done　on　animals　that　are　most　closely　related　
to　humans；　such　as　chimpanzees。　For　example；　much　research　on　FHV　and　ADDS　is　done　on　monkeys；　
because　their　immune　systems　function　much　like　humans　and　because　they　are　susceptible　to　a　virus；　SIV；　
that　is　closely　related　to　FHV。　These　monkeys；　however；　share　99　percent　of　their　genetic　material　with　
humans。　If　the　reason　that　we　do　not　use　humans　in　some　types　of　research　is　because　it　is　unethical；　it　
would　seem　that　the　more　closely　an　animal　was　related　to　humans；　the　less　ethical　it　would　be　to　use　them　
in　similar　research。　An　argument　can　be　made　that　the　more　closely　an　animal　is　related　to　humans；　the　
more　like　a　human　it　should　be　treated。　According　to　this　reasoning；　chimpanzees　should　be　treated　like　
human　participants。　Thus；　there　is　a　quandary　between　how　generalizable　animal　research　is　to　humans　

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and　how　much　like　humans　animals　should　be　treated。　What　do　your　students　think　about　this　line　of　
reasoning？　

Experimental　Design　

The　overarching　goals　of　the　following　exercise　are　to　demonstrate　how　psychology　and　the　scientific　
method　can　be　used　to　address　issues　that　interest　your　students；　to　teach　them　how　them　how　the　concepts　
they　are　learning　influence　experimental　design；　and　to　impress　on　them　an　appreciation　for　the　challenges　
faced　by　experimental　psychologists。　Lead　your　class　through　the　process　of　designing　an　experiment。　Start　
with　a　hypothesis　generated　through　brainstorming　by　the　class。　Allowing　your　students　to　provide　the　
hypothesis　ensures　that　it　will　interest　them　and　that　they　will　stay　engaged。　Students　may　start　with　topics　
such　as　alien　abduction；　crop　circles；　and　the　Loch　Ness　monster。　Wele　this；　as　it　gives　you　a　terrific　
opportunity　to　talk　about　alternative　explanations；　existence　proofs；　and　the　fact　that　some　topics；　such　as　
the　proof　of　the　existence　of　God；　remain　firmly　outside　the　boundaries　of　science。　The　scientific　method　is　
not　a　panacea；　it　is　a　highly　structured　method　for　testing　measurable　factors　and　relationships。　After　your　
class　has　agreed　on　an　issue　to　test；　lead　them　toward　a　consensus；　testable　hypothesis　about　the　issue。　
Once　your　class　has　clearly　defined　a　hypothesis；　lead　them　through　a　discussion　of　possible　alternative　
explanations。　Challenge　their　hypothesis　and　their　beliefs。　Are　there　other　possible　explanations　that　are　
more　simple　and　more　likely？　What　assumptions　and　possible　biases　underlie　their　hypothesis？　How　
would　the　hypothesis　（and　their　assumptions　and　biases）　generated　by　your　class　be　different　than　
explanations　put　forward　by　people　from　different　cultures　and　different　times？　You　might　want　to　mention　
that　spirit　possession　was　a　widely　held　explanation　for　mental　illness　until　relatively　recently。　After　listing　
a　number　of　possible　alternative　explanations；　allow　your　class　to　suggest　a　very　basic　methodology　for　
testing　the　hypothesis　and　eliminating　the　alternative　explanations。　You　might　want　to　give　them　a　head　
start　by　suggesting　the　kind　of　data　that　they　would　need　to　collect　to　measure　the　variables　of　interest。　
Depending　on　the　hypothesis　chosen　and　the　sophistication　of　your　class；　outlining　a　reasonable　
experiment　may　be　a　difficult　process。　If　the　class　begins　to　show　signs　of　overload；　you　can　quickly　switch　
gears　and　use　the　exercise　to　demonstrate　the　difficulty　in　designing　and　executing　well…controlled　
experiments。　

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BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Sir　Francis　Galton　（1822–1911）　

Few　psychologists　are　credited　with　more　firsts　than　Galton；　the　cousin　of　Charles　Darwin。　A　child　prodigy；　
Galton