the boss and the machine-第15章

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can　give　pertinent　testimony　to　the　willingness　of　legislatures
to　prostitute　their　great　powers　to　the　will　of　the　boss　or　the
machine。



CHAPTER　VIII。　THE　NATIONAL　HIERARCHY

American　political　maneuver　culminates　at　Washington。　The
Presidency　and　membership　in　the　Senate　and　the　House　of
Representatives　are　the　great　stakes。　By　a　venerable　tradition；
scrupulously　followed；　the　judicial　department　is　kept　beyond　the
reach　of　party　greed。

The　framers　of　the　Constitution　believed　that　they　had　contrived
a　method　of　electing　the　President　and　Vice…President　which　would
preserve　the　choice　from　partizan　taint。　Each　State　should　choose
a　number　of　electors　〃equal　to　the　whole　number　of　Senators　and
Representatives　to　which　the　State　maybe　entitled　in　the
Congress。〃　These　electors　were　to　form　an　independent　body；　to
meet　in　their　respective　States　and　〃ballot　for　two　persons；〃　and
send　the　result　of　their　balloting　to　the　Capitol；　where　the
President　of　the　Senate；　in　the　presence　of　the　Senate　and　the
House　of　Representatives；　opened　the　certificates　and　counted　the
votes。　The　one　receiving　the　greatest　number　of　votes　was　to　be
declared　elected　President；　the　one　receiving　the　next　highest
number　of　votes；　Vice…President。　George　Washington　was　the　only
President　elected　by　such　an　autonomous　group。　The　election　of
John　Adams　was　bitterly　contested；　and　the　voters　knew；　when　they
were　casting　their　ballots　in　1796；　whether　they　were　voting　for
a　Federalist　or　a　Jeffersonian。　From　that　day　forward　this
greatest　of　political　prizes　has　been　awarded　through　partizan
competition。　In　1804　the　method　of　selecting　the　Vice…President
was　changed　by　the　twelfth　constitutional　amendment。　The　electors
since　that　time　ballot　for　President　and　Vice…President。　Whatever
may　be　the　legal　privileges　of　the　members　of　the　Electoral
College；　they　are　considered；　by　the　voters；　as　agents　of　the
party　upon　whose　tickets　their　names　appear；　and　to　abuse　this
relationship　would　universally　be　deemed　an　act　of　perfidy。

The　Constitution　permits　the　legislatures　of　the　States　to
determine　how　the　electors　shall　be　chosen。　In　the　earlier
period；　the　legislatures　elected　them；　later　they　were　elected　by
the　people；　sometimes　they　were　elected　at　large；　but　usually
they　were　chosen　by　districts。　And　this　is　now　the　general
custom。　Since　the　development　of　direct　nominations；　there　has
been　a　strong　movement　towards　the　abolition　of　the　Electoral
College　and　the　election　of　the　President　by　direct　vote。

The　President　is　the　most　powerful　official　in　our　government　and
in　many　respects　he　is　the　most　powerful　ruler　in　the　world。　He
is　Commander…in…Chief　of　the　Army　and　Navy。　His　is　virtually　the
sole　responsibility　in　conducting　international　relations。　He　is
at　the　head　of　the　civil　administration　and　all　the　important
administrative　departments　are　answerable　to　him。　He　possesses　a
vast　power　of　appointment　through　which　he　dispenses　political
favors。　His　wish　is　potent　in　shaping　legislation　and　his　veto　is
rarely　overridden。　With　Congress　he　must　be　in　daily　contact；　for
the　Senate　has　the　power　of　ratifying　or　discarding　his
appointments　and　of　sanctioning　or　rejecting　his　treaties　with
foreign　countries；　and　the　House　of　Representatives　originates
all　money　bills　and　thus　possesses　a　formidable　check　upon
executive　usurpation。

The　Constitution　originally　reposed　the　choice　of　United　States
Senators　with　the　state　legislatures。　A　great　deal　of　virtue　was
to　flow　from　such　an　indirect　election。　The　members　of　the
legislature　were　presumed　to　act　with　calm　judgment　and　to　choose
only　the　wise　and　experienced　for　the　dignity　of　the　toga。　And
until　the　period　following　the　Civil　War　the　great　majority　of
the　States　delighted　to　send　their　ablest　statesmen　to　the
Senate。　Upon　its　roll　we　find　the　names　of　many　of　our
illustrious　orators　and　jurists。　After　the　Civil　War；　when　the
spirit　of　commercialism　invaded　every　activity；　men　who　were
merely　rich　began　to　aspire　to　senatorial　honors。　The　debauch　of
the　state　legislatures　which　was　revealed　in　the　closing　year　of
the　nineteenth　century　and　the　opening　days　of　the　twentieth　so
revolted　the　people　that　the　seventeenth　constitutional　amendment
was　adopted　（1913）　providing　for　the　election　of　senators　by
direct　vote。

The　House　of　Representatives　was　designed　to　be　the〃　popular
house。〃　Its　election　from　small　districts；　by　direct　vote；　every
two　years　is　a　guarantee　of　its　popular　character。　From　this
characteristic　it　has　never　departed。　It　is　the　People's　House。
It　originates　all　revenue　measures。　On　its　floor；　in　the　rough
and　tumble　of　debate；　partizan　motives　are　rarely　absent。

Upon　this　national　tripod；　the　Presidency；　the　Senate；　and　the
House；　is　builded　the　vast　national　party　machine。　Every　citizen
is　familiar　with　the　outer　aspect　of　these　great　national　parties
as　they　strive　in　placid　times　to　create　a　real　issue　of　the
tariff；　or　imperialism；　or　what　not；　so　as　to　establish　at　least
an　ostensible　difference　between　them；　or　as　they；　in　critical
times；　make　the　party　name　synonymous　with　national　security。　The
high…sounding　platforms；　the　frenzied　orators；　the　parades；　mass
meetings；　special　trains；　pamphlets；　books；　editorials；
lithographs；　posterall　these　paraphernalia　are　conjured　up　in
the　voter's　mind　when　he　reads　the　words　Democratic　and
Republican。

But；　from　the　standpoint　of　the　professional　politician；　all　this
that　the　voter　sees　is　a　mask；　the　patriotic　veneer　to　hide　the
machine；　that　complex　hierarchy　of　committees　ranging　from
Washington　to　every　cross…roads　in　the　Republic。　The　committee
system；　described　in　a　former　chapter；　was　perfected　by　the
Republican　party　during　the　days　of　the　Civil　War；　under　the
stress　of　national　necessity。　The　great　party　leaders　were　then
in　Congress。　When　the　assassination　of　Lincoln　placed　Andrew
Johnson　in　power；　the　bitter　quarrel　between　Congress　and　the
President　firmly　united　the　Republicans；　and　in　order　to　carry
the　mid…election　in　1866；　they　organized　a　Congressional　Campaign
Committee　to　conduct　the　canvass。　This　practice　has　been
continued　by　both　parties；　and　in　〃off〃　years　it　plays　a　very
prominent　part　in　the　party　campaign。　Congress　alone；　however；
was　only　half　the　conquest。　It　was　only　through　control　of　the
Administration　that　access　was　gained　to　the　succulent　herbage　of
federal　pasturage　and　that　vast　political　prestige　with　the　voter
was　achieved。

The　President　is　nominally　the　head　of　his　party。　In　reality　he
may　not　be；　he　may　be　only　the　President。　That　depends　upon　his
personality；　his　desires；　his　hold　upon　Congress　and　upon　the
people；　and　upon　the　circumstances　of　the　hour。　During　the　Grant
Administration；　as　already　described；　there　existed；　in　every
sense　of　the　term；　a　federal　machine。　It　held　Congress；　the
Executive；　and　the　vast　federal　patronage　in　its　power。　All　the
federal　office…holders；　all　the　postmasters　and　their　assistants；
revenue　collectors；　inspectors；　clerks；　marshals；　deputies；
consuls；　and　ambassadors　were　a　part　of　the　organization；
contributing　to　its　maintenance。　We　often　hear　today　of　the
〃Federal　Crowd；〃　a　term　used　to　describe　such　appointees　as　still
subsist　on　presidential　and　senatorial　favor。　In　Grant's　time；
this　〃crowd〃　was　a　genuine　machine；　constructed；　unlike　some　of
its　successors；　from　the　center　outward。　But　the　〃boss〃　of　this
machine　was　not　the　President。　It　was　controlled　by　a　group　of
leading　Congressmen；　who　used　their　power　for　dictating
appointments　and　framing　〃desirable〃　legislation。　Grant；　in　the
imagination　of　the　people；　symbolized　the　cause　their　sacrifices
had　won；　and　thus　his　moral　prestige　became　the　cloak　of　the
political　plotters。

A　number　of　the　ablest　men　in　the　Republican　party；　however；
stood　aloof；　and　by　1876　a　movement　against　the　manipulators　had
set　in。　Civil　service　reform　had　become　a　real　issue。　Hayes；　the
〃dark　horse〃　who　was　nominated　in　that　year；　declared；　in
accepting　the　nomination；　that　〃reform　should　be　thorough；
radical；　and　complete。〃　He　promised　not　to　be　a　candidate　for　a
second　term；　thus　avoiding　the　temptation；　to　which　almost　every
President　has　succumbed；　of　using　the　patronage　to　secure　his
reelection。　The　party　managers　pretended　not　to　hear　these
promises。　And　when　Hayes；　after　his　inauguration；　actually　began
to　put　them　into　force；　they　set　the　whole　machinery　of　the　party
against　the　President。　Matters　came　to　a　head　when　the　President
issued　an　order　commanding　federal　office…holders　to　refrain　from
political　activity。　This　order　was　generally　defied；　especially
in　New　York　City　in　the　post…office　and　customs　rings。　Two
notorious　offenders；　Cornell　and　Arthur；　were　dismissed　from
office　by　the　President。　But　the　Senate；　influenced　by　Roscoe
Conkling's　power；　refused　to　confirm　the　President's　new
appointees；　and　under　the　Tenure　of　Office　Act；　which　had　been
passed　to　tie　President　Johnson's　hands；　the　offenders　remained
in　office　over　a　year。　The　fight　disciplined　the　President　and
the　machine　in　about　equal　proportions。　The　President　became　more
amenable　and　the　machine　less　arbitrary。

President　Garfield　attempted　the　impossible　feat　of　obliging　both
the　politicians　and　the　reformers。　He　was　persuaded　to　make
nominations　to　federal　offices　in　New　York　without　consulting
either　of　the　senators　from　that　State；　Conkling　and　Platt。
Conkling　appealed　to　the　Senate　to　reject　the　New　York　appointees
sent　in　by　the　President。　The　Senate　failed　to　sustain　him。
Conkling　and　his　colleague　Platt　resigned　from　the　Senate　and
appealed　to　the　New　York　legislature；　which　also　refused　to
sustain　them。

While　this　absurd　farce　was　going　on；　a　more　serious　ferment　was
brewing。　On　July　2；　1881；　President　Garfield　was　assassinated　by
a　disappointed　office…seeker　named　Guiteau。　The　attention　of　the
people　was　suddenly　turned　from　the　ridiculous　diversion　of　the
Conkling　incident　to　the　tragedy　and　its　cause。　They　saw　the
chief　office　in　their　gift　a　mere　pawn　in　the　game　of
place…seekers；　the　time　and　energy　of　their　President　wasted　in
bickerings　with　congressmen　over　petty　appointments；　and　the
machinery　of　their　Government　dominated　by　the　machinery　of　the
party　for　ignoble　or　selfish　ends。

At　last　the　advocates　of　reform　found　their　opportunity。　In　1883
the　Civil　Service　Act　was　passed；　taking　from　the　President　about
14；000　appointments。　Since　then　nearly　every　President；　towards
the　end　of　his　term；　especially　his　second　term；　has　added　to　the
numbers；　until　nearly　two…thirds　of　the　federal　offices　are　now
filled　by　examination。　President　Cleveland　during　his　second　term
made　sweeping　additions。　President　Roosevelt　found　about　100；000
in　the　classified　service　and　left　200；000。　President　Taft；
before　his　retirement；　placed　in　the　classified　service　assistant
postmasters　and　clerks　in　first　and　second…class　postoffices；
about　42；000　rural　delivery　carriers；　and　over　20；000　skilled
workers　in　the　navy　yards。

The　appointing　power　of　the　President；　however；　still　remains　the
principal　point　of　his　contact　with　the　machine。　He　has；　of
course；　other　means　of　s