essays and lectures-第12章

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Olympia　and　the　light　and　laughter　of　Ionian　waters。



For　in　him　we　can　discern　the　first　notes　of　that　great　cult　of　the

seven…hilled　city　which　made　Virgil　write　his　epic　and　Livy　his

history；　which　found　in　Dante　its　highest　exponent；　which　dreamed

of　an　Empire　where　the　Emperor　would　care　for　the　bodies　and　the

Pope　for　the　souls　of　men；　and　so　has　passed　into　the　conception　of

God's　spiritual　empire　and　the　universal　brotherhood　of　man　and

widened　into　the　huge　ocean　of　universal　thought　as　the　Peneus

loses　itself　in　the　sea。



Polybius　is　the　last　scientific　historian　of　Greece。　　The　writer

who　seems　fittingly　to　complete　the　progress　of　thought　is　a　writer

of　biographies　only。　　I　will　not　here　touch　on　Plutarch's

employment　of　the　inductive　method　as　shown　in　his　constant　use　of

inscription　and　statue；　of　public　document　and　building　and　the

like；　because　it　involves　no　new　method。　　It　is　his　attitude

towards　miracles　of　which　I　desire　to　treat。



Plutarch　is　philosophic　enough　to　see　that　in　the　sense　of　a

violation　of　the　laws　of　nature　a　miracle　is　impossible。　　It　is

absurd；　he　says；　to　imagine　that　the　statue　of　a　saint　can　speak；

and　that　an　inanimate　object　not　possessing　the　vocal　organs　should

be　able　to　utter　an　articulate　sound。　　Upon　the　other　hand；　he

protests　against　science　imagining　that；　by　explaining　the　natural

causes　of　things；　it　has　explained　away　their　transcendental

meaning。　　'When　the　tears　on　the　cheek　of　some　holy　statue　have

been　analysed　into　the　moisture　which　certain　temperatures　produce

on　wood　and　marble；　it　yet　by　no　means　follows　that　they　were　not　a

sign　of　grief　and　mourning　set　there　by　God　Himself。'　　When　Lampon

saw　in　the　prodigy　of　the　one…horned　ram　the　omen　of　the　supreme

rule　of　Pericles；　and　when　Anaxagoras　showed　that　the　abnormal

development　was　the　rational　resultant　of　the　peculiar　formation　of

the　skull；　the　dreamer　and　the　man　of　science　were　both　right；　it

was　the　business　of　the　latter　to　consider　how　the　prodigy　came

about；　of　the　former　to　show　why　it　was　so　formed　and　what　it　so

portended。　　The　progression　of　thought　is　exemplified　in　all

particulars。　　Herodotus　had　a　glimmering　sense　of　the　impossibility

of　a　violation　of　nature。　　Thucydides　ignored　the　supernatural。

Polybius　rationalised　it。　　Plutarch　raises　it　to　its　mystical

heights　again；　though　he　bases　it　on　law。　　In　a　word；　Plutarch　felt

that　while　science　brings　the　supernatural　down　to　the　natural；　yet

ultimately　all　that　is　natural　is　really　supernatural。　　To　him；　as

to　many　of　our　own　day；　religion　was　that　transcendental　attitude

of　the　mind　which；　contemplating　a　world　resting　on　inviolable　law；

is　yet　comforted　and　seeks　to　worship　God　not　in　the　violation　but

in　the　fulfilment　of　nature。



It　may　seem　paradoxical　to　quote　in　connection　with　the　priest　of

Chaeronea　such　a　pure　rationalist　as　Mr。　Herbert　Spencer；　yet　when

we　read　as　the　last　message　of　modern　science　that　'when　the

equation　of　life　has　been　reduced　to　its　lowest　terms　the　symbols

are　symbols　still；'　mere　signs；　that　is；　of　that　unknown　reality

which　underlies　all　matter　and　all　spirit；　we　may　feel　how　over　the

wide　strait　of　centuries　thought　calls　to　thought　and　how　Plutarch

has　a　higher　position　than　is　usually　claimed　for　him　in　the

progress　of　the　Greek　intellect。



And；　indeed；　it　seems　that　not　merely　the　importance　of　Plutarch

himself　but　also　that　of　the　land　of　his　birth　in　the　evolution　of

Greek　civilisation　has　been　passed　over　by　modern　critics。　　To　us；

indeed；　the　bare　rock　to　which　the　Parthenon　serves　as　a　crown；　and

which　lies　between　Colonus　and　Attica's　violet　hills；　will　always

be　the　holiest　spot　in　the　land　of　Greece：　　and　Delphi　will　come

next；　and　then　the　meadows　of　Eurotas　where　that　noble　people　lived

who　represented　in　Hellenic　thought　the　reaction　of　the　law　of　duty

against　the　law　of　beauty；　the　opposition　of　conduct　to　culture。

Yet；　as　one　stands　on　the　＇Greek　text　which　cannot　be　reproduced＇

of　Cithaeron　and　looks　out　on　the　great　double　plain　of　Boeotia；

the　enormous　importance　of　the　division　of　Hellas　comes　to　one's

mind　with　great　force。　　To　the　north　are　Orchomenus　and　the　Minyan

treasure…house；　seat　of　those　merchant　princes　of　Phoenicia　who

brought　to　Greece　the　knowledge　of　letters　and　the　art　of　working

in　gold。　　Thebes　is　at　our　feet　with　the　gloom　of　the　terrible

legends　of　Greek　tragedy　still　lingering　about　it；　the　birthplace

of　Pindar；　the　nurse　of　Epaminondas　and　the　Sacred　Band。



And　from　out　of　the　plain　where　'Mars　loved　to　dance；'　rises　the

Muses'　haunt；　Helicon；　by　whose　silver　streams　Corinna　and　Hesiod

sang；　while　far　away　under　the　white　aegis　of　those　snow…capped

mountains　lies　Chaeronea　and　the　Lion　plain　where　with　vain

chivalry　the　Greeks　strove　to　check　Macedon　first　and　afterwards

Rome；　Chaeronea；　where　in　the　Martinmas　summer　of　Greek

civilisation　Plutarch　rose　from　the　drear　waste　of　a　dying　religion

as　the　aftermath　rises　when　the　mowers　think　they　have　left　the

field　bare。



Greek　philosophy　began　and　ended　in　scepticism：　　the　first　and　the

last　word　of　Greek　history　was　Faith。



Splendid　thus　in　its　death；　like　winter　sunsets；　the　Greek　religion

passed　away　into　the　horror　of　night。　　For　the　Cimmerian　darkness

was　at　hand；　and　when　the　schools　of　Athens　were　closed　and　the

statue　of　Athena　broken；　the　Greek　spirit　passed　from　the　gods　and

the　history　of　its　own　land　to　the　subtleties　of　defining　the

doctrine　of　the　Trinity　and　the　mystical　attempts　to　bring　Plato

into　harmony　with　Christ　and　to　reconcile　Gethsemane　and　the　Sermon

on　the　Mount　with　the　Athenian　prison　and　the　discussion　in　the

woods　of　Colonus。　　The　Greek　spirit　slept　for　wellnigh　a　thousand

years。　　When　it　woke　again；　like　Antaeus　it　had　gathered　strength

from　the　earth　where　it　lay；　like　Apollo　it　had　lost　none　of　its

divinity　through　its　long　servitude。



In　the　history　of　Roman　thought　we　nowhere　find　any　of　those

characteristics　of　the　Greek　Illumination　which　I　have　pointed　out

are　the　necessary　concomitants　of　the　rise　of　historical　criticism。


The　conservative　respect　for　tradition　which　made　the　Roman　people

delight　in　the　ritual　and　formulas　of　law；　and　is　as　apparent　in

their　politics　as　in　their　religion；　was　fatal　to　any　rise　of　that

spirit　of　revolt　against　authority　the　importance　of　which；　as　a

factor　in　intellectual　progress；　we　have　already　seen。



The　whitened　tables　of　the　Pontifices　preserved　carefully　the

records　of　the　eclipses　and　other　atmospherical　phenomena；　and　what

we　call　the　art　of　verifying　dates　was　known　to　them　at　an　early

time；　but　there　was　no　spontaneous　rise　of　physical　science　to

suggest　by　its　analogies　of　law　and　order　a　new　method　of　research；

nor　any　natural　springing　up　of　the　questioning　spirit　of

philosophy　with　its　unification　of　all　phenomena　and　all　knowledge。

At　the　very　time　when　the　whole　tide　of　Eastern　superstition　was

sweeping　into　the　heart　of　the　Capital　the　Senate　banished　the

Greek　philosophers　from　Rome。　　And　of　the　three　systems　which　did

at　length　take　some　root　in　the　city；　those　of　Zeno　and　Epicurus

were　used　merely　as　the　rule　for　the　ordering　of　life；　while　the

dogmatic　scepticism　of　Carneades；　by　its　very　principles；

annihilated　the　possibility　of　argument　and　encouraged　a　perfect

indifference　to　research。



Nor　were　the　Romans　ever　fortunate　enough　like　the　Greeks　to　have

to　face　the　incubus　of　any　dogmatic　system　of　legends　and　myths；

the　immoralities　and　absurdities　of　which　might　excite　a

revolutionary　outbreak　of　sceptical　criticism。　　For　the　Roman

religion　became　as　it　were　crystallised　and　isolated　from　progress

at　an　early　period　of　its　evolution。　　Their　gods　remained　mere

abstractions　of　commonplace　virtues　or　uninteresting

personifications　of　the　useful　things　of　life。　　The　old　primitive

creed　was　indeed　always　upheld　as　a　state　institution　on　account　of

the　enormous　facilities　it　offered　for　cheating　in　politics；　but　as

a　spiritual　system　of　belief　it　was　unanimously　rejected　at　a　very

early　period　both　by　the　common　people　and　the　educated　classes；

for　the　sensible　reason　that　it　was　so　extremely　dull。　　The　former

took　refuge　in　the　mystic　sensualities　of　the　worship　of　Isis；　the

latter　in　the　Stoical　rules　of　life。　　The　Romans　classified　their

gods　carefully　in　their　order　of　precedence；　analysed　their

genealogies　in　the　laborious　spirit　of　modern　heraldry；　fenced　them

round　with　a　ritual　as　intricate　as　their　law；　but　never　quite

cared　enough　about　them　to　believe　in　them。　　So　it　was　of　no

account　with　them　when　the　philosophers　announced　that　Minerva　was

merely　memory。　　She　had　never　been　much　else。　　Nor　did　they　protest

when　Lucretius　dared　to　say　of　Ceres　and　of　Liber　that　they　were

only　the　corn　of　the　field　and　the　fruit　of　the　vine。　　For　they　had

never　mourned　for　the　daughter　of　Demeter　in　the　asphodel　meadows

of　Sicily；　nor　traversed　the　glades　of　Cithaeron　with　fawn…skin　and

with　spear。



This　brief　sketch　of　the　condition　of　Roman　thought　will　serve　to

prepare　us　for　the　almost　total　want　of　scientific　historical

criticism　which　we　shall　discern　in　their　literature；　and　has；

besides；　afforded　fresh　corroboration　of　the　conditions　essential

to　the　rise　of　this　spirit；　and　of　the　modes　of　thought　which　it

reflects　and　in　which　it　is　always　to　be　found。　　Roman　historical

composition　had　its　origin　in　the　pontifical　college　of

ecclesiastical　lawyers；　and　preserved　to　its　close　the　uncritical

spirit　which　characterised　its　fountain…head。　　It　possessed　from

the　outset　a　most　voluminous　collection　of　the　materials　of

history；　which；　however；　produced　merely　antiquarians；　not

historians。　　It　is　so　hard　to　use　facts；　so　easy　to　accumulate

them。



Wearied　of　the　dull　monotony　of　the　pontifical　annals；　which　dwelt

on　little　else　but　the　rise　and　fall　in　provisions　and　the　eclipses

of　the　sun；　Cato　wrote　out　a　history　with　his　own　hand　for　the

instruction　of　his　child；　to　which　he　gave　the　name　of　Origines；

and　before　his　time　some　aristocratic　families　had　written

histories　in　Greek　much　in　the　same　spirit　in　which　the　Germans　of

the　eighteenth　century　used　French　as　the　literary　language。　　But

the　first　regular　Roman　historian　is　Sallust。　　Between　the

extravagant　eulogies　passed　on　this　author　by　the　French　（such　as

De　Closset）；　and　Dr。　Mommsen's　view　of　him　as　merely　a　political

pamphleteer；　it　is　perhaps　difficult　to　reach　the　VIA　MEDIA　of

unbiassed　appreciation。　　He　has；　at　any　rate；　the　credit　of　being　a

purely　rationalistic　historian；　perhaps　the　only　one　in　Roman

literature。　　Cicero　had　a　good　many　qualifications　for　a　scientific

historian；　and　（as　he　usually　did）　thought　very　highly　of　his　own

powers。　　On　passages　of　ancient　legend；　however；　he　is　rather

unsatisfactory；　for　while　he　is　too　sensible　to