the unseen world and other essays-第48章

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nd　analysis　of　the　historical　inquirer？　The　answer　to　these　queries　will　lead　us　far　into　the　discussion　of　the　subject　which　we　have　propounded；　and　we　shall　best　reach　it　by　considering　some　aspects　of　the　social　condition　of　ancient　Greece。　The　lessons　to　be　learned　from　that　wonderful　country　are　not　yet　exhausted　Each　time　that　we　return　to　that　richest　of　historic　mines；　and　delve　faithfully　and　carefully；　we　shall　be　sure　to　dig　up　some　jewel　worth　carrying　away。

And　in　considering　ancient　Greece；　we　shall　do　well　to　confine　our　attention；　for　the　sake　of　definiteness　of　conception；　to　a　single　city。　Comparatively　homogeneous　as　Greek　civilization　was；　there　was　nevertheless　a　great　deal　of　difference　between　the　social　circumstances　of　sundry　of　its　civic　communities。　What　was　true　of　Athens　was　frequently　not　true　of　Sparta　or　Thebes；　and　general　assertions　about　ancient　Greece　are　often　likely　to　be　collect　only　in　a　loose　and　general　way。　In　speaking；　therefore；　of　Greece；　I　must　be　understood　in　the　main　as　referring　to　Athens；　the　eye　and　light　of　Greece；　the　nucleus　and　centre　of　Hellenic　culture。

Let　us　note　first　that　Athens　was　a　large　city　surrounded　by　pleasant　village…suburbs；the　demes　of　Attika；very　much　as　Boston　is　closely　girdled　by　rural　places　like　Brookline；　Jamaica　Plain；　and　the　rest；　village　after　village　rather　thickly　covering　a　circuit　of　from　ten　to　twenty　miles'　radius。　The　population　of　Athens　with　its　suburbs　may　perhaps　have　exceeded　half　a　million；　but　the　number　of　adult　freemen　bearing　arms　did　not　exceed　twenty…five　thousand。＇67＇　For　every　one　of　these　freemen　there　were　four　or　five　slaves；　not　ignorant；　degraded　labourers；　belonging　to　an　inferior　type　of　humanity；　and　bearing　the　marks　of　a　lower　caste　in　their　very　personal　formation　and　in　the　colour　of　their　skin；　like　our　lately…enslaved　negroes；　but　intelligent；　skilled　labourers；　belonging　usually　to　the　Hellenic；　and　at　any　rate　to　the　Aryan　race；　as　fair　and　perhaps　as　handsome　as　their　masters；　and　not　subjected　to　especial　ignominy　or　hardship。　These　slaves；　of　whom　there　were　at　least　one　hundred　thousand　adult　males；　relieved　the　twenty…five　thousand　freemen　of　nearly　all　the　severe　drudgery　of　life；　and　the　result　was　an　amount　of　leisure　perhaps　never　since　known　on　an　equal　scale　in　history。

＇67＇　See　Herod。　V。　97；　Aristoph。　Ekkl。　432；　Thukyd。　II。　13；　Plutarch；　Perikl。　37。


The　relations　of　master　and　slave　in　ancient　Athens　constituted；　of　course；　a　very　different　phenomenon　from　anything　which　the　history　of　our　own　Southern　States　has　to　offer　us。　Our　Southern　slaveholders　lived　in　an　age　of　industrial　development；　they　were　money…makers：　they　had　their　full　share　of　business　in　managing　the　operations　for　which　their　labourers　supplied　the　crude　physical　force。　It　was　not　so　in　Athens。　The　era　of　civilization　founded　upon　organized　industry　had　not　begun；　money…making　had　not　come　to　be；　with　the　Greeks；　the　one　all…important　end　of　life；　and　mere　subsistence；　which　is　now　difficult；　was　then　easy。　The　Athenian　lived　in　a　mild；　genial；　healthy　climate；　in　a　country　which　has　always　been　notable　for　the　activity　and　longevity　of　its　inhabitants。　He　was　frugal　in　his　habits；a　wine…drinker　and　an　eater　of　meat；　but　rarely　addicted　to　gluttony　or　intemperance。　His　dress　was　inexpensive；　for　the　Greek　climate　made　but　little　protection　necessary；　and　the　gymnastic　habits　of　the　Greeks　led　them　to　esteem　more　highly　the　beauty　of　the　body　than　that　of　its　covering。　His　house　was　simple；　not　being　intended　for　social　purposes；　while　of　what　we　should　call　home…life　the　Greeks　had　none。　The　house　was　a　shelter　at　night；　a　place　where　the　frugal　meal　might　be　taken；　a　place　where　the　wife　might　stay；　and　look　after　the　household　slaves　or　attend　to　the　children。　And　this　brings　us　to　another　notable　feature　of　Athenian　life。　The　wife　having　no　position　in　society；　being　nothing；　indeed；　but　a　sort　of　household　utensil；　how　greatly　was　life　simplified！　What　a　door　for　expenditure　was　there；　as　yet　securely　closed；　and　which　no　one　had　thought　of　opening！　No　milliner's　or　dressmaker's　bills；　no　evening　parties；　no　Protean　fashions；　no　elegant　furniture；　no　imperious　necessity　for　Kleanthes　to　outshine　Kleon；　no　coaches；　no　Chateau　Margaux；　no　journeys　to　Arkadia　in　the　summer！　In　such　a　state　of　society；　as　one　may　easily　see；　the　labour　of　one　man　would　support　half　a　dozen。　It　cost　the　Athenian　but　a　few　cents　daily　to　live；　and　even　these　few　cents　might　be　earned　by　his　slaves。　We　need　not；　therefore；　be　surprised　to　learn　that　in　ancient　Athens　there　were　no　paupers　or　beggars。　There　might　be　poverty；　but　indigence　was　unknown；　and　because　of　the　absence　of　fashion；　style；　and　display；　even　poverty　entailed　no　uncomfortable　loss　of　social　position。　The　Athenians　valued　wealth　highly；　no　doubt；　as　a　source　of　contributions　to　public　festivals　and　to　the　necessities　of　the　state。　But　as　far　as　the　circumstances　of　daily　life　go；　the　difference　between　the　rich　man　and　the　poor　man　was　immeasurably　less　than　in　any　modern　community；　and　the　incentives　to　the　acquirement　of　wealth　were；　as　a　consequence；　comparatively　slight。

I　do　not　mean　to　say　that　the　Athenians　did　not　engage　in　business。　Their　city　was　a　commercial　city；　and　their　ships　covered　the　Mediterranean。　They　had　agencies　and　factories　at　Marseilles；　on　the　remote　coasts　of　Spain；　and　along　the　shores　of　the　Black　Sea。　They　were　in　many　respects　the　greatest　commercial　people　of　antiquity；　and　doubtless　knew；　as　well　as　other　people；　the　keen　delights　of　acquisition。　But　my　point　is；　that　with　them　the　acquiring　of　property　had　not　become　the　chief　or　only　end　of　life。　Production　was　carried　on　almost　entirely　by　slave…labour；　interchange　of　commodities　was　the　business　of　the　masters；　and　commerce　was　in　those　days　simple。　Banks；　insurance　companies；　brokers'　boards；all　these　complex　instruments　of　Mammon　were　as　yet　unthought　of。　There　was　no　Wall　Street　in　ancient　Athens；　there　were　no　great　failures；　no　commercial　panics；　no　over…issues　of　stock。　Commerce；　in　short；　was　a　quite　subordinate　matter；　and　the　art　of　money…making　was　in　its　infancy。

The　twenty…five　thousand　Athenian　freemen　thus　enjoyed；　on　the　whole；　more　undisturbed　leisure；　more　freedom　from　petty　harassing　cares；　than　any　other　community　known　to　history。　Nowhere　else　can　we　find；　on　careful　study；　so　little　of　the　hurry　and　anxiety　which　destroys　the　even　tenour　of　modern　life；nowhere　else　so　few　of　the　circumstances　which　tend　to　make　men　insane；　inebriate；　or　phthisical；　or　prematurely　old。

This　being　granted；　it　remains　only　to　state　and　illustrate　the　obverse　fact。　It　is　not　only　true　that　Athens　has　produced　and　educated　a　relatively　larger　number　of　men　of　the　highest　calibre　and　most　complete　culture　than　any　other　community　of　like　dimensions　which　has　ever　existed；　but　it　is　also　true　that　there　has　been　no　other　community；　of　which　the　members　have；　as　a　general　rule；　been　so　highly　cultivated；　or　have　attained　individually　such　completeness　of　life。　In　proof　of　the　first　assertion　it　will　be　enough　to　mention　such　names　as　those　of　Solon；　Themistokles；　Perikles；　and　Demosthenes；　Isokrates　and　Lysias；　Aristophanes　and　Menander；　Aischylos；　Sophokles；　and　Euripides；　Pheidias　and　Praxiteles；　Sokrates　and　Plato；　Thukydides　and　Xenophon：　remembering　that　these　men；　distinguished　for　such　different　kinds　of　achievement；　but　like　each　other　in　consummateness　of　culture；　were　all　produced　within　one　town　in　the　course　of　three　centuries。　At　no　other　time　and　place　in　human　history　has　there　been　even　an　approach　to　such　a　fact　as　this。

My　other　assertion；　about　the　general　culture　of　the　community　in　which　such　men　were　reared；　will　need　a　more　detailed　explanation。　When　I　say　that　the　Athenian　public　was；　on　the　whole；　the　most　highly　cultivated　public　that　has　ever　existed；　I　refer　of　course　to　something　more　than　what　is　now　known　as　literary　culture。　Of　this　there　was　relatively　little　in　the　days　of　Athenian　greatness；　and　this　was　because　there　was　not　yet　need　for　it　or　room　for　it。　Greece　did　not　until　a　later　time　begin　to　produce　scholars　and　savants；　for　the　function　of　scholarship　does　not　begin　until　there　has　been　an　accumulation　of　bygone　literature　to　be　interpreted　for　the　benefit　of　those　who　live　in　a　later　time。　Grecian　greatness　was　already　becoming　a　thing　of　the　past；　when　scholarship　and　literary　culture　of　the　modern　type　began　at　Rome　and　Alexandria。　The　culture　of　the　ancient　Athenians　was　largely　derived　from　direct　intercourse　with　facts　of　nature　and　of　life；　and　with　the　thoughts　of　rich　and　powerful　minds　orally　expressed。　The　value　of　this　must　not　be　underrated。　We　moderns　are　accustomed　to　get　so　large　a　portion　of　our　knowledge　and　of　our　theories　of　life　out　of　books；　our　taste　and　judgment　are　so　largely　educated　by　intercourse　with　the　printed　page；　that　we　are　apt　to　confound　culture　with　book…knowledge；　we　are　apt　to　forget　the　innumerable　ways　in　which　the　highest　intellectual　faculties　may　be　disciplined　without　the　aid　of　literature。　We　must　study　antiquity　to　realize　how　thoroughly　this　could　be　done。　But　even　in　our　day；　how　much　more　fruitful　is　the　direct　influence　of　an　original　mind　over　us；　in　the　rare　cases　when　it　can　be　enjoyed；　than　any　indirect　influence　which　the　same　mind　may　exert　through　the　medium　of　printed　books！　What　fellow　of　a　college；　placed　amid　the　most　abundant　and　efficient　implements　of　study；　ever　gets　such　a　stimulus　to　the　highest　and　richest　intellectual　life　as　was　afforded　to　Eckermann　by　his　daily　intercourse　with　Goethe？　The　breadth　of　culture　and　the　perfection　of　training　exhibited　by　John　Stuart　Mill　need　not　surprise　us　when　we　recollect　that　his　earlier　days　were　spent　in　the　society　of　James　Mill　and　Jeremy　Bentham。　And　the　remarkable　extent　of　view；　the　command　of　facts；　and　the　astonishing　productiveness　of　such　modern　Frenchmen　as　Sainte…Beuve　and　Littre　become　explicable　when　we　reflect　upon　the　circumstance　that　so　many　able　and　brilliant　men　are　collected　in　one　city；　where　their　minds　may　continually　and　directly　react　upon　each　other。　It　is　from　the　lack　of　such　personal　stimulus　that　it　is　difficult　or　indeed　wellnigh　impossible；　even　for　those　whose　resources　are　such　as　to　give　them　an　extensive　command　of　books；　to　keep　up　to　the　highest　level　of　contemporary　culture　while　living　in　a　village　or　provincial　town。　And　it　is　mainly　because　of　the　personal　stimulus　which　it　affords　to　its　students；　that　a　great　university；　as　a　seat　of　culture；　is　immeasurably　superior　to　a　small　one。

Nevertheless；　the　small　community　in　any　age　possesses　one　signal　advantage　over　the　large　one；　in　its　greater　simplicity　of　life　and　its　consequent　relative　leisure。　It　was　the　prerogative　of　ancient　Athens　that　it　united　the　advantages　of　the　large　to　those　of　the　small　community。　In　relative　simplicity　of　life　it　was　not　unlike　the　modern　village；　while　at　the　same　time　it　was　the　metropolis　where　the　foremost　minds　of　the　time　were　enabled　to　react　directly　upon　one　another。　In　yet　another　respect　these　opposite　advantages　were　combined。　The　twenty…five　thousand　free　inhabitants　might　perhaps　all　know　so