wealbk05-第56章

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system　of　taxation　as　oppressive　as　that　of　Holland；　or　even　as

that　of　Spain。　To　the　honour　of　our　present　system　of　taxation；

indeed；　it　has　hitherto　given　so　little　embarrassment　to　industry

that；　during　the　course　even　of　the　most　expensive　wars；　the

frugality　and　good　conduct　of　individuals　seem　to　have　been　able；

by　saving　and　accumulation；　to　repair　all　the　breaches　which　the

waste　and　extravagance　of　government　had　made　in　the　general

capital　of　the　society。　At　the　conclusion　of　the　late　war；　the

most　expensive　that　Great　Britain　ever　waged；　her　agriculture　was

as　flourishing；　her　manufacturers　as　numerous　and　as　fully

employed；　and　her　commerce　as　extensive　as　they　had　ever　been

before。　The　capital；　therefore；　which　supported　all　those

different　branches　of　industry　must　have　been　equal　to　what　it

had　ever　been　before。　Since　the　peace；　agriculture　has　been　still

further　improved；　the　rents　of　houses　have　risen　in　every　town

and　village　of　the　country…　a　proof　of　the　increasing　wealth　and

revenue　of　the　people；　and　the　annual　amount　the　greater　part　of

the　old　taxes；　of　the　principal　branches　of　the　excise　and

customs　in　particular；　has　been　continually　increasing…　an

equally　clear　proof　of　an　increasing　consumption；　and

consequently　of　an　increasing　produce　which　could　alone　support

that　consumption。　Great　Britain　seems　to　support　with　ease　a

burden　which；　half　a　century　ago；　nobody　believed　her　capable　of

supporting。　Let　us　not；　however；　upon　this　account　rashly

conclude　that　she　is　capable　of　supporting　any　burden；　nor　even

be　too　confident　that　she　could　support；　without　great　distress；

a　burden　a　little　greater　than　what　has　already　been　laid　upon

her。

　　　　　When　national　debts　have　once　been　accumulated　to　a　certain

degree；　there　is　scarce；　I　believe；　a　single　instance　of　their

having　been　fairly　and　completely　paid。　The　liberation　of　the

public　revenue；　if　it　has　ever　been　brought　about　by　bankruptcy；

sometimes　by　an　avowed　one；　but　always　by　a　real　one；　though

frequently　by　a　pretended　payment。

　　　　　The　raising　of　the　denomination　of　the　coin　has　been　the

most　usual　expedient　by　which　a　real　public　bankruptcy　has　been

disguised　under　the　appearance　of　a　pretended　payment。　If　a

sixpence；　for　example；　should　either　by　Act　of　Parliament　or

Royal　Proclamation　be　raised　to　the　denomination　of　a　shilling；

and　twenty　sixpences　to　that　of　a　pound　sterling；　the　person　who

under　the　old　denomination　had　borrowed　twenty　shillings；　or　near

four　ounces　of　silver；　would；　under　the　new；　pay　with　twenty

sixpences；　or　with　something　less　than　two　ounces。　A　national

debt　of　about　a　hundred　and　twenty…eight　millions；　nearly　the

capital　of　the　funded　and　unfunded　debt　of　Great　Britain；　might

in　this　manner　be　paid　with　about　sixty…four　millions　of　our

present　money。　It　would　indeed　be　a　pretended　payment　only；　and

the　creditors　of　the　public　would　really　be　defrauded　of　ten

shillings　in　the　pound　of　what　was　due　to　them。　The　calamity；

too；　would　extend　much　further　than　to　the　creditors　of　the

public；　and　those　of　every　private　person　would　suffer　a

proportionable　loss；　and　this　without　any　advantage；　but　in　most

cases　with　a　great　additional　loss；　to　the　creditors　of　the

public。　If　the　creditors　of　the　public；　indeed；　were　generally

much　in　debt　to　other　people；　they　might　in　some　measure

compensate　their　loss　by　paying　their　creditors　in　the　same　coin

in　which　the　public　had　paid　them。　But　in　most　countries　the

creditors　of　the　public　are；　the　greater　part　of　them；　wealthy

people；　who　stand　more　in　the　relation　of　creditors　than　in　that

of　debtors　towards　the　rest　of　their　fellow…citizens。　A　pretended

payment　of　this　kind；　therefore；　instead　of　alleviating；

aggravates　in　most　cases　the　loss　of　the　creditors　of　the　public；

and　without　any　advantage　to　the　public；　extends　the　calamity　to

a　great　number　of　other　innocent　people。　It　occasions　a　general

and　most　pernicious　subversion　of　the　fortunes　of　private　people；

enriching　in　most　cases　the　idle　and　profuse　debtor　at　the

expense　of　the　industrious　and　frugal　creditor；　and　transporting

a　great　part　of　the　national　capital　from　the　hands　which　were

likely　to　increase　and　improve　it　to　those　which　are　likely　to

dissipate　and　destroy　it。　When　it　becomes　necessary　for　a　state

to　declare　itself　bankrupt；　in　the　same　manner　as　when　it　becomes

necessary　for　an　individual　to　do　so；　a　fair；　open；　and　avowed

bankruptcy　is　always　the　measure　which　is　both　least

dishonourable　to　the　debtor　and　least　hurtful　to　the　creditor。

The　honour　of　a　state　is　surely　very　poorly　provided　for　when；　in

order　to　cover　the　disgrace　of　a　real　bankruptcy；　it　has　recourse

to　a　juggling　trick　of　this　kind；　so　easily　seen　through；　and　at

the　same　time　so　extremely　pernicious。

　　　　　Almost　all　states；　however；　ancient　as　well　as　modern；　when

reduced　to　this　necessity　have；　upon　some　occasions；　played　this

very　juggling　trick。　The　Romans；　at　the　end　of　the　first　Punic

war；　reduced　the　As；　the　coin　or　denomination　by　which　they

computed　the　value　of　all　their　other　coins；　from　containing

twelve　ounces　of　copper　to　contain　only　two　ounces；　that　is；　they

raised　two　ounces　of　copper　to　a　denomination　which　had　always

before　expressed　the　value　of　twelve　ounces。　The　republic　was；　in

this　manner；　enabled　to　pay　the　great　debts　which　it　had

contracted　with　the　sixth　part　of　what　it　really　owed。　So　sudden

and　so　great　a　bankruptcy；　we　should　in　the　present　times　be　apt

to　imagine；　must　have　occasioned　a　very　violent　popular　clamour。

It　does　not　appear　to　have　occasioned　any。　The　law　which　enacted

it　was；　like　all　other　laws　relating　to　the　coin；　introduced　and

carried　through　the　assembly　of　the　people　by　a　tribune；　and　was

probably　a　very　popular　law。　In　Rome；　as　in　all　the　other　ancient

republics；　the　poor　people　were　constantly　in　debt　to　the　rich

and　the　great；　who　in　order　to　secure　their　votes　at　the　annual

elections；　used　to　lend　them　money　at　exorbitant　interest；　which；

being　never　paid；　soon　accumulated　into　a　sum　too　great　either

for　the　debtor　to　pay；　or　for　anybody　else　to　pay　for　him。　The

debtor；　for　fear　of　a　very　severe　execution；　was　obliged；　without

any　further　gratuity；　to　vote　for　the　candidate　whom　the　creditor

recommended。　In　spite　of　all　the　laws　against　bribery　and

corruption；　the　bounty　of　the　candidates；　together　with　the

occasional　distributions　of　corn　which　were　ordered　by　the

senate；　were　the　principal　funds　from　which；　during　the　latter

times　of　the　Roman　republic；　the　poorer　citizens　derived　their

subsistence。　To　deliver　themselves　from　this　subjection　to　their

creditors；　the　poorer　citizens　were　continually　calling　out

either　for　an　entire　abolition　of　debts；　or　for　what　they　called

New　Tables；　that　is；　for　a　law　which　should　entitle　them　to　a

complete　acquittance　upon　paying　only　a　certain　proportion　of

their　accumulated　debts。　The　law　which　reduced　the　coin　of　all

denominations　to　a　sixth　part　of　its　former　value；　as　it　enabled

them　to　pay　their　debts　with　a　sixth　part　of　what　they　really

owed；　was　equivalent　to　the　most　advantageous　New　Tables。　In

order　to　satisfy　the　people；　the　rich　and　the　great　were；　upon

several　different　occasions；　obliged　to　consent　to　laws　both　for

abolishing　debts；　and　for　introducing　New　Tables；　and　they

probably　were　induced　to　consent　to　this　law　partly　for　the　same

reason；　and　partly　that；　by　liberating　the　public　revenue；　they

might　restore　vigour　to　that　government　of　which　they　themselves

had　the　principal　direction。　An　operation　of　this　kind　would　at

once　reduce　a　debt　of　a　hundred　and　twenty…eight　millions　to

twenty…one　millions　three　hundred　and　thirty…three　thousand　three

hundred　and　thirty…three　pounds　six　shillings　and　eightpence。　In

the　course　of　the　second　Punic　war　the　As　was　still　further

reduced；　first；　from　two　ounces　of　copper　to　one　ounce；　and

afterwards　from　one　ounce　to　half　an　ounce；　that　is；　to　the

twenty…fourth　part　of　its　original　value。　By　combining　the　three

Roman　operations　into　one；　a　debt　of　a　hundred　and　twenty…eight

millions　of　our　present　money　might　in　this　manner　be　reduced　all

at　once　to　a　debt　of　five　millions　three　hundred　and　thirty…three

thousand　three　hundred　and　thirty…three　pounds　six　shillings　and

eightpence。　Even　the　enormous　debts　of　Great　Britain　might　in

this　manner　soon　be　paid。

　　　　　By　means　of　such　expedients　the　coin　of；　I　believe；　all

nations　has　been　gradually　reduced　more　and　more　below　its

original　value；　and　the　same　nominal　sum　has　been　gradually

brought　to　contain　a　smaller　and　a　smaller　quantity　of　silver。

　　　　　Nations　have　sometimes；　for　the　same　purpose；　adulterated

the　standard　of　their　coin；　that　is；　have　mixed　a　greater

quantity　of　alloy　in　it。　If　in　the　pound　weight　of　our　silver

coin；　for　example；　instead　of　eighteen　pennyweight；　according　to

the　present　standard；　there　was　mixed　eight　ounces　of　alloy；　a

pound　sterling；　or　twenty　shillings　of　such　coin；　would　be　worth

little　more　than　six　shillings　and　eightpence　of　our　present

money。　The　quantity　of　silver　contained　in　six　shillings　and

eightpence　of　our　present　money　would　thus　be　raised　very　nearly

to　the　denomination　of　a　pound　sterling。　The　adulteration　of　the

standard　has　exactly　the　same　effect　with　what　the　French　call　an

augmentation；　or　a　direct　raising　of　the　denomination　of　the

coin。

　　　　　An　augmentation；　or　a　direct　raising　of　the　coin；　always　is；

and　from　its　nature　must　be；　an　open　and　avowed　operation。　By

means　of　it　pieces　of　a　smaller　weight　and　bulk　are　called　by　the

same　name　which　had　before　been　given　to　pieces　of　a　greater

weight　and　bulk。　The　adulteration　of　the　standard；　on　the

contrary；　has　generally　been　a　concealed　operation。　By　means　of

it　pieces　were　issued　from　the　mint　of　the　same　denominations；

and；　as　nearly　as　could　be　contrived；　of　the　same　weight；　bulk；

and　appearance　with　pieces　which　had　been　current　before　of　much

greater　value。　When　King　John　of　France；　in　order　to　pay　his

debts；　adulterated　his　coin；　all　the　officers　of　his　mint　were

sworn　to　secrecy。　Both　operations　are　unjust。　But　a　simple

augmentation　is　an　injustice　of　open　violence；　whereas　the

adulteration　is　an　injustice　of　treacherous　fraud。　This　latter

operation；　therefore；　as　soon　as　it　has　been　discovered；　and　it

could　never　be　concealed　very　long；　has　always　excited　much

greater　indignation　than　the　former。　The　coin　after　any

considerable　augmentation　has　very　seldom　been　brought　back　to

its　former　weight；　but　after　the　greater　adulterations　it　has

almost　always　been　brought　back　to　its　former　fineness。　It　has

scarce　ever　happened　that　the　fury　and　indignation　of　the　people

could　otherwise　be　appeased。

　　　　　In　the　end　of　the　reign　of　Henry　VIII　and　in　the　beginning

of　that　of　Edward　VI　the　English　coin　was　not　only　raised　in　its

denomination；