wealbk05-第15章

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servants　and　dependants　should　have　either　the　pleasure　of

wasting　or　the　profit　of　embezzling　whatever　surplus　might　remain

after　paying　the　proposed　dividend　of　eight　per　cent　than　that　it

should　come　into　the　hands　of　a　set　of　people　with　whom　those

resolutions　could　scarce　fail　to　set　them；　in　some　measure；　at

variance。　The　interest　of　those　servants　and　dependants　might　so

far　predominate　in　the　court　of　proprietors　as　sometimes　to

dispose　it　to　support　the　authors　of　depredations　which　had　been

committed　in　direct　violation　of　its　own　authority。　With　the

majority　of　proprietors；　the　support　even　of　the　authority　of

their　own　court　might　sometimes　be　a　matter　of　less　consequence

than　the　support　of　those　who　had　set　that　authority　at　defiance。

　　　　　The　regulations　of　1773；　accordingly；　did　not　put　an　end　to

the　disorders　of　the　company's　government　in　India。

Notwithstanding　that；　during　a　momentary　fit　of　good　conduct；

they　had　at　one　time　collected　into　the　treasury　of　Calcutta　more

than　three　millions　sterling；　notwithstanding　that　they　had

afterwards　extended；　either　their　dominion；　or　their

depredations；　over　a　vast　accession　of　some　of　the　richest　and

most　fertile　countries　in　India；　all　was　wasted　and　destroyed。

They　found　themselves　altogether　unprepared　to　stop　or　resist　the

incursion　of　Hyder　Ali；　and；　in　consequence　of　those　disorders；

the　company　is　now　（1784）　in　greater　distress　than　ever；　and；　in

order　to　prevent　immediate　bankruptcy；　is　once　more　reduced　to

supplicate　the　assistance　of　government。　Different　plans　have

been　proposed　by　the　different　parties　in　Parliament　for　the

better　management　of　its　affairs。　And　all　those　plans　seem　to

agree　insupposing；　what　was　indeed　always　abundantly　evident；

that　it　is　altogether　unfit　to　govern　its　territorial

possessions。　Even　the　company　itself　seems　to　be　convinced　of　its

own　incapacity　so　far；　and　seems；　upon　that　account；　willing　to

give　them　up　to　government。

　　　　　With　the　right　of　possessing　forts　and　garrisons　in　distant

and　barbarous　countries　is　necessarily　connected　the　right　of

making　peace　and　war　in　those　countries。　The　joint　stock

companies　which　have　had　the　one　right　have　constantly　exercised

the　other；　and　have　frequently　had　it　expressly　conferred　upon

them。　How　unjustly；　how　capriciously；　how　cruelly　they　have

commonly　exercised　it；　is　too　well　known　from　recent　experience。

　　　　　When　a　company　of　merchants　undertake；　at　their　own　risk　and

expense；　to　establish　a　new　trade　with　some　remote　and　barbarous

nation；　it　may　not　be　unreasonable　to　incorporate　them　into　a

joint　stock　company；　and　to　grant　them；　in　case　of　their　success；

a　monopoly　of　the　trade　for　a　certain　number　of　years。　It　is　the

easiest　and　most　natural　way　in　which　the　state　can　recompense

them　for　hazarding　a　dangerous　and　expensive　experiment；　of　which

the　public　is　afterwards　to　reap　the　benefit。　A　temporary

monopoly　of　this　kind　may　be　vindicated　upon　the　same　principles

upon　which　a　like　monopoly　of　a　new　machine　is　granted　to　its

inventor；　and　that　of　a　new　book　to　its　author。　But　upon　the

expiration　of　the　term；　the　monopoly　ought　certainly　to

determine；　the　forts　and　garrisons；　if　it　was　found　necessary　to

establish　any；　to　be　taken　into　the　hands　of　government；　their

value　to　be　paid　to　the　company；　and　the　trade　to　be　laid　open　to

all　the　subjects　of　the　state。　By　a　perpetual　monopoly；　all　the

other　subjects　of　the　state　are　taxed　very　absurdly　in　two

different　ways：　first；　by　the　high　price　of　goods；　which；　in　the

case　of　a　free　trade；　they　could　buy　much　cheaper；　and；　secondly；

by　their　total　exclusion　from　a　branch　of　business　which　it　might

be　both　convenient　and　profitable　for　many　of　them　to　carry　on。

It　is　for　the　most　worthless　of　all　purposes；　too；　that　they　are

taxed　in　this　manner。　It　is　merely　to　enable　the　company　to

support　the　negligence；　profusion；　and　malversation　of　their　own

servants；　whose　disorderly　conduct　seldom　allows　the　dividend　of

the　company　to　exceed　the　ordinary　rate　of　profit　in　trades　which

are　altogether　free；　and　very　frequently　makes　it　fall　even　a

good　deal　short　of　that　rate。　Without　a　monopoly；　however；　a

joint　stock　company；　it　would　appear　from　experience；　cannot　long

carry　on　any　branch　of　foreign　trade。　To　buy　in　one　market；　in

order　to　sell；　with　profit；　in　another；　when　there　are　many

competitors　in　both；　to　watch　over；　not　only　the　occasional

variations　in　the　demand；　but　the　much　greater　and　more　frequent

variations　in　the　competition；　or　in　the　supply　which　that　demand

is　likely　to　get　from　other　people；　and　to　suit　with　dexterity

and　judgment　both　the　quantity　and　quality　of　each　assortment　of

goods　to　all　these　circumstances；　is　a　species　of　warfare　of

which　the　operations　are　continually　changing；　and　which　can

scarce　ever　be　conducted　successfully　without　such　an　unremitting

exertion　of　vigilance　and　attention　as　cannot　long　be　expected

from　the　directors　of　a　joint　stock　company。　The　East　India

Company；　upon　the　redemption　of　their　funds；　and　the　expiration

of　their　exclusive　privilege；　have　right；　by　Act　of　Parliament；

to　continue　a　corporation　with　a　joint　stock；　and　to　trade　in

their　corporate　capacity　to　the　East　Indies　in　common　with　the

rest　of　their　fellow…subjects。　But　in　this　situation；　the

superior　vigilance　and　attention　of　private　adventurers　would；　in

all　probability；　soon　make　them　weary　of　the　trade。

　　　　　An　eminent　French　author；　of　great　knowledge　in　matters　of

political　economy；　the　Abbe　Morellet；　gives　a　list　of　fifty…five

joint　stock　companies　for　foreign　trade　which　have　been

established　in　different　parts　of　Europe　since　the　year　1600；　and

which；　according　to　him；　have　all　failed　from　mismanagement；

notwithstanding　they　had　exclusive　privileges。　He　has　been

misinformed　with　regard　to　the　history　of　two　or　three　of　them；

which　were　not　joint　stock　companies　and　have　not　failed。　But；　in

compensation；　there　have　been　several　joint　stock　companies　which

have　failed；　and　which　he　has　omitted。

　　　　　The　only　trades　which　it　seems　possible　for　a　joint　stock

company　to　carry　on　successfully　without　an　exclusive　privilege

are　those　of　which　all　the　operations　are　capable　of　being

reduced　to　what　is　called　a　Routine；　or　to　such　a　uniformity　of

method　as　admits　of　little　or　no　variation。　Of　this　kind　is；

first；　the　banking　trade；　secondly；　the　trade　of　insurance　from

fire；　and　from　sea　risk　and　capture　in　time　of　war；　thirdly；　the

trade　of　making　and　maintaining　a　navigable　cut　or　canal；　and；

fourthly；　the　similar　trade　of　bringing　water　for　the　supply　of　a

great　city。

　　　　　Though　the　principles　of　the　banking　trade　may　appear

somewhat　abstruse；　the　practice　is　capable　of　being　reduced　to

strict　rules。　To　depart　upon　any　occasion　from　those　rules；　in

consequence　of　some　flattering　speculation　of　extraordinary　gain；

is　almost　always　extremely　dangerous；　and　frequently　fatal；　to

the　banking　company　which　attempts　it。　But　the　constitution　of

joint　stock　companies　renders　them　in　general　more　tenacious　of

established　rules　than　any　private　copartnery。　Such　companies；

therefore；　seem　extremely　well　fitted　for　this　trade。　The

principal　banking　companies　in　Europe；　accordingly；　are　joint

stock　companies；　many　of　which　manage　their　trade　very

successfully　without　any　exclusive　privilege。　The　Bank　of　England

has　no　other　exclusive　privilege　except　that　no　other　banking

company　in　England　shall　consist　of　more　than　six　persons。　The

two　banks　of　Edinburgh　are　joint　stock　companies　without　any

exclusive　privilege。

　　　　　The　value　of　the　risk；　either　from　fire；　or　from　loss　by

sea；　or　by　capture；　though　it　cannot；　perhaps；　be　calculated　very

exactly；　admits；　however；　of　such　a　gross　estimation　as　renders

it；　in　some　degree；　reducible　to　strict　rule　and　method。　The

trade　of　insurance；　therefore；　may　be　carried　on　successfully　by

a　joint　stock　company　without　any　exclusive　privilege。　Neither

the　London　Assurance　nor　the　Royal　Exchange　Assurance　companies

have　any　such　privilege。

　　　　　When　a　navigable　cut　or　canal　has　been　once　made；　the

management　of　it　becomes　quite　simple　and　easy；　and　it　is

reducible　to　strict　rule　and　method。　Even　the　making　of　it　is　so

as　it　may　be　contracted　for　with　undertakers　at　so　much　a　mile；

and　so　much　a　lock。　The　same　thing　may　be　said　of　a　canal；　an

aqueduct；　or　a　great　pipe　for　bringing　water　to　supply　a　great

city。　Such　undertakings；　therefore；　may　be；　and　accordingly

frequently　are；　very　successfully　managed　by　joint　stock

companies　without　any　exclusive　privilege。

　　　　　To　establish　a　joint　stock　company；　however；　for　any

undertaking；　merely　because　such　a　company　might　be　capable　of

managing　it　successfully；　or　to　exempt　a　particular　set　of

dealers　from　some　of　the　general　laws　which　take　place　with

regard　to　all　their　neighbours；　merely　because　they　might　be

capable　of　thriving　if　they　had　such　an　exemption；　would

certainly　not　be　reasonable。　To　render　such　an　establishment

perfectly　reasonable；　with　the　circumstance　of　being　reducible　to

strict　rule　and　method；　two　other　circumstances　ought　to　concur。

First；　it　ought　to　appear　with　the　clearest　evidence　that　the

undertaking　is　of　greater　and　more　general　utility　than　the

greater　part　of　common　trades；　and　secondly；　that　it　requires　a

greater　capital　than　can　easily　be　collected　into　a　private

copartnery。　If　a　moderate　capital　were　sufficient；　the　great

utility　of　the　undertaking　would　not　be　a　sufficient　reason　for

establishing　a　joint　stock　company；　because；　in　this　case；　the

demand　for　what　it　was　to　produce　would　readily　and　easily　be

supplied　by　private　adventures。　In　the　four　trades　above

mentioned；　both　those　circumstances　concur。

　　　　　The　great　and　general　utility　of　the　banking　trade　when

prudently　managed　has　been　fully　explained　in　the　second；　book　of

this　Inquiry。　But　a　public　bank　which　is　to　support　public

credit；　and　upon　particular　emergencies　to　advance　to　government

the　whole　produce　of　a　tax；　to　the　amount；　perhaps；　of　several

millions；　a　year　or　two　before　it　comes　in；　requires　a　greater

capital　than　can　easily　be　collected　into　any　private　copartnery。

　　　　　The　trade　of　insurance　gives　great　security　to　the　fortunes

of　private　people；　and　by　dividing　among　a　great　many　that　loss

which　would　ruin　an　individual；　makes　it　fall　light　and　easy　upon

the　whole　society。　In　order　to　give　this　security；　however；　it　is

necessary　that　the　insurers　should　have　a　very　large　capital。

Before　the　establishment　of　the　two　joint　stock　companies　for

insurance　in　London；　a　list；　it　is　said；　was　laid　before　the

attorney…general　of　one　hundred　and　fifty　private　insurers　who

had　failed　in　the　course　of　a　few　years。

　　　　　That　navigable　cuts　and　canals；　and　the　works　which　are

sometimes　necessary　for　supplying　a　great　city　with　water；　are　of

gr