a smaller history of greece-第48章

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　him　their　public　guest；　and　by　giving　him　10；000　drachmas。　　The　only　poems　of　Pindar　which　have　come　down　to　us　entire　are　his　Epinicia　or　triumphal　odes；　composed　in　commemoration　of　victories　gained　in　the　great　public　games。　　But　these　were　only　a　small　portion　of　his　works。　　He　also　wrote　hymns；　paeans；　dithyrambs；　odes　for　processions；　songs　of　maidens；　mimic　dancing　songs；　drinking　songs；　dirges　and　encomia；　or　panegyrics　on　princes。

The　Greeks　had　arrived　at　a　high　pitch　of　civilization　before　they　can　be　said　to　have　possessed　a　HISTORY。　　The　first　essays　in　literary　prose　cannot　be　placed　earlier　than　the　sixth　century　before　the　Christian　aera；　but　the　first　writer　who　deserves　the　name　of　an　historian　is　HERODOTUS；　hence　called　the　Father　of　History。　　Herodotus　was　born　in　the　Dorian　colony　of　Halicarnassus　in　Caria；　in　the　year　484　B。C。；　and　accordingly　about　the　time　of　the　Persian　expeditions　into　Greece。　　He　resided　some　years　in　Samos；　and　also　undertook　extensive　travels；　of　which　he　speaks　in　his　work。　　There　was　scarcely　a　town　in　Greece　or　on　the　coasts　of　Asia　Minor　with　which　he　was　not　acquainted；　he　had　explored　Thrace　and　the　coasts　of　the　Black　Sea；　in　Egypt　he　had　penetrated　as　far　south　as　Elephantine；　and　in　Asia　he　had　visited　the　cities　of　Babylon；　Ecbatana；　and　Susa。　　The　latter　part　of　his　life　was　spent　at　Thurii；　a　colony　founded　by　the　Athenians　in　Italy　in　B。C。　443。　According　to　a　well…known　story　in　Lucian；　Herodotus；　when　he　had　completed　hia　work；　recited　it　publicly　at　the　great　Olympic　festival；　as　the　best　means　of　procuring　for　it　that　celebrity　to　which　he　felt　that　it　was　entitled。　　The　effect　is　described　as　immediate　and　complete。　　The　delighted　audience　at　once　assigned　the　names　of　the　nine　Muses　to　the　nine　books　into　which　it　is　divided。　　A　still　later　author　（Suidas）　adds；　that　Thucydides；　then　a　boy；　was　present　at　the　festival　with　his　father　Olorus；　and　was　so　affected　by　the　recital　as　to　shed　tears；　upon　which　Herodotus　congratulated　Olorus　on　having　a　son　who　possessed　so　early　such　a　zeal　for　knowledge。　　But　there　are　many　objections　to　the　probability　of　these　tales。

Herodotus　interwove　into　his　history　all　the　varied　and　extensive　knowledge　acquired　in　his　travels；　and　by　big　own　personal　researches。　　But　the　real　subject　of　the　work　is　the　conflict　between　the　Greek　race；　in　the　widest　sense　of　the　term；　and　including　the　Greeks　of　Asia　Minor；　with　the　Asiatics。　　Thus　the　historian　had　a　vast　epic　subject　presented　to　him；　which　was　brought　to　a　natural　and　glorious　termination　by　the　defeat　of　the　Persians　in　their　attempts　upon　Greece。　　The　work　concludes　with　the　reduction　of　Sestos　by　the　Athenians；　B。C。　478。　Herodotus　wrote　in　the　Ionic　dialect；　and　his　style　is　marked　by　an　ease　and　simplicity　which　lend　it　an　indescribable　charm。

THUCYDIDES；　the　greatest　of　the　Greek　historians；　was　an　Athenian；　and　was　born　in　the　year　471　B。C。　　His　family　was　connected　with　that　of　Miltiades　and　Cimon。　　He　possessed　gold…　mines　in　Thrace；　and　enjoyed　great　influence　in　that　country。　　He　commanded　an　Athenian　squadron　of　seven　ships　at　Thasos；　in　424　B。C。；　at　the　time　when　Brasidas　was　besieging　Amphipolis；　and　having　failed　to　relieve　that　city　in　time；　he　went　into　a　voluntary　exile；　in　order　probably　to　avoid　the　punishment　of　death。　　He　appears　to　have　spent　20　years　in　banishment；　principally　in　the　Peloponnesus；　or　in　places　under　the　dominion　or　influence　of　Sparta。　　He　perhaps　returned　to　Athens　in　B。C。　403；　the　date　of　its　liberation　by　Thrasybulus。　　According　to　the　unanimous　testimony　of　antiquity　he　met　with　a　violent　end；　and　it　seems　probable　that　he　was　assassinated　at　Athens；　since　it　cannot　be　doubted　that　his　tomb　existed　there。　　From　the　beginning　of　the　Peloponnesian　war　he　had　designed　to　write　its　history；　and　he　employed　himself　in　collecting　materials　for　that　purpose　during　its　continuance；　but　it　is　most　likely　that　the　work　was　not　actually　composed　till　after　the　conclusion　of　the　war；　and　that　he　was　engaged　upon　it　at　the　time　of　his　death。　The　first　book　of　his　History　is　introductory；　and　contains　a　rapid　sketch　of　Grecian　history　from　the　remotest　times　to　the　breaking　out　of　the　war。　　The　remaining　seven　books　are　filled　with　the　details　of　the　war；　related　according　to　the　division　into　summers　and　winters；　into　which　all　campaigns　naturally　fall；　and　the　work　breaks　off　abruptly　in　the　middle　of　the　21st　year　of　the　war　（B。C。　411）。　　The　materials　of　Thucydides　were　collected　with　the　most　scrupulous　care；　the　events　are　related　with　the　strictest　impartiality；　and　the　work　probably　offers　a　more　exact　account　of　a　long　and　eventful　period　than　any　other　contemporary　history；　whether　ancient　or　modern；　of　an　equally　long　and　important　aera。　The　style　of　Thucydides　is　brief　and　sententious；　and　whether　in　moral　or　political　reasoning；　or　in　description；　gains　wonderful　force　from　its　condensation。　　But　this　characteristic　is　sometimes　carried　to　a　faulty　extent；　so　as　to　render　his　style　harsh；　and　his　meaning　obscure。

XENOPHON；　the　son　of　Gryllus；　was　also　an　Athenian；　and　was　probably　born　about　B。C。　444。　　He　was　a　pupil　of　Socrates；　who　saved　his　life　at　the　battle　of　Delium　（B。C。　424）。　　His　accompanying　Cyrus　the　younger　in　his　expedition　against　his　brother　Artaxerxes；　king　of　Persia；　formed　a　striking　episode　in　his　life；　and　has　been　recorded　by　himself　in　his　ANABASIS。　　He　seems　to　have　been　still　in　Asia　at　the　time　of　the　death　of　Socrates　in　399　B。C。；　and　was　probably　banished　from　Athens　soon　after　that　period；　in　consequence　of　his　close　connexion　with　the　Lacedaemonians。　　He　accompanied　Agesilaus；　the　Spartan　king；　on　the　return　of　the　latter　from　Asia　to　Greece；　and　he　fought　along　with　the　Lacedaemonians　against　his　own　countrymen　at　the　battle　of　Coronea　in　394　B。C。　　After　this　battle　he　went　with　Agesilaus　to　Sparta；　and　soon　afterwards　settled　at　Scillus　in　Elis；　near　Olympia。　　He　is　said　to　have　lived　to　more　than　90　years　of　age；　and　he　mentions　an　event　which　occurred　as　late　as　357　B。C。

Probably　all　the　works　of　Xenophon　are　still　extant。　　The　ANABASIS　is　the　work　on　which　his　fame　as　an　historian　chiefly　rests。　　It　is　written　in　a　simple　and　agreeable　style；　and　conveys　much　curious　and　striking　information。　　The　HELLENICA　is　a　continuation　of　the　history　of　Thucydides；　and　comprehends　in　seven　books　a　space　of　about　48　years；　namely；　from　the　time　when　Thucydides　breaks　off；　B。C。　411；　to　the　battle　of　Mantinea　in　362。　　The　subject　is　treated　in　a　very　dry　and　uninteresting　style；　and　his　evident　partiality　to　Sparta；　and　dislike　of　Athens；　have　frequently　warped　his　judgment；　and　must　cause　his　statements　to　be　received　with　some　suspicion。　　The　CYROPAEDIA；　one　of　the　most　pleasing　and　popular　of　his　works；　professes　to　be　a　history　of　Cyrus；　the　founder　of　the　Persian　monarchy；　but　is　in　reality　a　kind　of　political　romance；　and　possesses　no　authority　whatever　as　an　historical　work。　　The　design　of　the　author　seems　to　have　been　to　draw　a　picture　of　a　perfect　state；　and　though　the　scene　is　laid　in　Persia；　the　materials　of　the　work　are　derived　from　his　own　philosophical　notions　and　the　usages　of　Sparta　engrafted　on　the　popularly　current　stories　respecting　Cyrus。　　Xenophon　displays　in　this　work　his　dislike　of　democratic　institutions　like　those　of　Athens；　and　his　preference　for　an　aristocracy；　or　even　a　monarchy。　　Xenophon　was　also　the　author　of　several　minor　works；　but　the　only　other　treatise　which　we　need　mention　is　the　MEMORABILIA　of　Socrates；　in　four　books；　intended　as　a　defence　of　his　master　against　the　charges　which　occasioned　his　death；　and　which　undoubtedly　contains　a　genuine　picture　of　Socrates　and　his　philosophy。　　The　genius　of　Xenophon　was　not　of　the　highest　order；　it　was　practical　rather　than　speculative；　but　he　is　distinguished　for　his　good　sense；　his　moderate　views；　his　humane　temper；　and　his　earnest　piety。

The　DRAMA　pre…eminently　distinguished　Athenian　literature。　　The　democracy　demanded　a　literature　of　a　popular　kind；　the　vivacity　of　the　people　a　literature　that　made　a　lively　impression；　and　both　these　conditions　were　fulfilled　by　the　drama。　　But　though　brought　to　perfection　among　the　Athenians；　tragedy　and　comedy；　in　their　rude　and　early　origin；　were　Dorian　inventions。　　Both　arose　out　of　the　worship　of　Dionysus。　　There　was　at　first　but　little　distinction　between　these　two　species　of　the　drama；　except　that　comedy　belonged　more　to　the　rural　celebration　of　the　Dionysiac　festivals；　and　tragedy　to　that　in　cities。　　The　name　of　TRAGEDY　was　far　from　signifying　any　thing　mournful；　being　derived　from　the　goat…like　appearance　of　those　who；　disguised　as　Satyrs；　performed　the　old　Dionysiac　songs　and　dances。　　In　like　manner；　COMEDY　was　called　after　the　song　of　the　band　of　revellers　who　celebrated　the　vintage　festivals　of　Dionysus；　and　vented　the　rude　merriment　inspired　by　the　occasion　in　jibes　and　extempore　witticisms　levelled　at　the　spectators。　　Tragedy；　in　its　more　perfect　form；　was　the　offspring　of　the　dithyrambic　odes　with　which　that　worship　was　celebrated。　　These　were　not　always　of　a　joyous　cast。　　Some　of　them　expressed　the　sufferings　of　Dionysus；　and　it　was　from　this　more　mournful　species　of　dithyramb　that　tragedy；　properly　so　called；　arose。　　The　dithyrambic　odes　formed　a　kind　of　lyrical　tragedy；　and　were　sung　by　a　chorus　of　fifty　men；　dancing　round　the　altar　of　Dionysus。　　The　improvements　in　the　dithyramb　were　introduced　by　Arion　at　Corinth；　and　it　was　chiefly　among　the　Dorian　states　of　the　Peloponnesus　that　these　choral　dithyrambic　songs　prevailed。　　Hence；　even　in　attic　tragedy；　the　chorus；　which　was　the　foundation　of　the　drama；　was　written　in　the　Doric　dialect；　thus　clearly　betraying　the　source　from　which　the　Athenians　derived　it。

In　Attica　an　important　alteration　was　made　in　the　old　tragedy　in　the　time　of　Pisistratus；　in　consequence　of　which　it　obtained　a　new　and　dramatic　character。　　This　innovation　is　ascribed　to　THESPIS；　a　native　of　the　Attic　village　of　Icaria；　B。C。　535。　　It　consisted　in　the　introduction　of　an　actor　for　the　purpose　of　giving　rest　to　the　chorus。　　Thespis　was　succeeded　by　Choerilus　and　Phrynichus；　the　latter　of　whom　gained　his　first　prize　in　the　dramatic　contests　in　511　B。C。　　The　Dorian　Pratinas；　a　native　of　Philius；　but　who　exhibited　his　tragedies　at　Athens；　introduced　an　improvement　in　tragedy　by　separating　the　Satyric　from　the　tragic　drama。　　As　neither　the　popular　taste　nor　the　ancient　religious　associations　connected　with　the　festivals　of　Dionysus　would　have　permitted　the　chorus　of　Satyrs　to　be　entirely　banished　from　the　tragic　representations；　Pratinas　avoided　this　by　the　invention　of　what　is　called　the　Satyric　drama；　that　is；　a　species　of　play　in　which　the　ordinary　subjects　of　tragedy　were　treated　in　a　lively　and　farcical　manner；　and　in　which　the　chorus　consisted　of　a　band　of　Satyrs　in　appropriate　dresses　and　masks。　　After　this　period　it　became　customary　to　exhibit　dramas　in　TETRALOGIES；　or　sets　of　four；　namely；　a　tragic　trilogy；　or　series　of　three　tragedies；　followed　by　a　Satyric　play。　　These　were　often　on　connected　subjects；　and　the　Satyric　drama　at　the　end　served　like　a　merry　after…piece　to　relieve　the　minds　of　the　spectators。

The　subjects　of　Greek　tragedy　were　taken；　with　few