industrial biography-第4章

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began　by　erecting　permanent　dykes　to　prevent　the　return　of　the

waters。　　While　carrying　on　the　works；　several　rows　of　stakes　were

exposed；　and　on　digging　down；　the　labourers　turned　up　a　number　of

pieces　of　charred　wood；　stones　blackened　by　fire；　utensils；　bones；

and　other　articles；　showing　that　at　some　remote　period；　a　number　of

human　beings　had　lived　over　the　spot；　in　dwellings　supported　by

stakes　driven　into　the　bed　of　the　lake。



The　discovery　having　attracted　attention；　explorations　were　made　at

other　places；　and　it　was　shortly　found　that　there　was　scarcely　a　lake

in　Switzerland　which　did　not　yield　similar　evidence　of　the　existence

of　an　ancient　Lacustrine　or　Lake…dwelling　population。　　Numbers　of

their　tools　and　implements　were　brought　to　lightstone　axes　and

saws；　flint　arrowheads；　bone　needles；　and　such　likemixed　with　the

bones　of　wild　animals　slain　in　the　chase；　pieces　of　old　boats；

portions　of　twisted　branches；　bark；　and　rough　planking；　of　which

their　dwellings　had　been　formed；　the　latter　still　bearing　the　marks

of　the　rude　tools　by　which　they　had　been　laboriously　cut。　　In　the　most

ancient；　or　lowest　series　of　deposits；　no　traces　of　metal；　either　of

bronze　or　iron；　were　discovered；　and　it　is　most　probable　that　these

lake…dwellers　lived　in　as　primitive　a　state　as　the　South　Sea

islanders　discovered　by　Captain　Cook；　and　that　the　huts　over　the

water　in　which　they　lived　resembled　those　found　in　Papua　and　Borneo；

and　the　islands　of　the　Salomon　group；　to　this　day。



These　aboriginal　Swiss　lake…dwellers　seem　to　have　been　succeeded　by　a

race　of　men　using　tools；　implements；　and　ornaments　of　bronze。　　In　some

places　the　remains　of　this　bronze　period　directly　overlay　those　of　the

stone　period；　showing　the　latter　to　have　been　the　most　ancient；　but　in

others；　the　village　sites　are　altogether　distinct。　　The　articles　with

which　the　metal　implements　are　intermixed；　show　that　considerable

progress　had　been　made　in　the　useful　arts。　　The　potter's　wheel　had　been

introduced。　　Agriculture　had　begun；　and　wild　animals　had　given　place　to

tame　ones。　　The　abundance　of　bronze　also　shows　that　commerce　must　have

existed　to　a　certain　extent；　for　tin；　which　enters　into　its

composition；　is　a　comparatively　rare　metal；　and　must　necessarily　have

been　imported　from　other　European　countries。



The　Swiss　antiquarians　are　of　opinion　that　the　men　of　bronze　suddenly

invaded　and　extirpated　the　men　of　flint；　and　that　at　some　still　later

period；　another　stronger　and　more　skilful　race；　supposed　to　have　been

Celts　from　Gaul；　came　armed　with　iron　weapons；　to　whom　the　men　of

bronze　succumbed；　or　with　whom；　more　probably；　they　gradually

intermingled。　　When　iron；　or　rather　steel；　came　into　use；　its

superiority　in　affording　a　cutting　edge　was　so　decisive　that　it　seems

to　have　supplanted　bronze　almost　at　once；*

　＇footnote。。。

Mr。　Mushet；　however；　observes　that　〃the　general　use　of　hardened

copper　by　the　ancients　for　edge…tools　and　warlike　instruments；　does

not　preclude　the　supposition　that　iron　was　then　comparatively

plentiful；　though　it　is　probable　that　it　was　confined　to　the　ruder

arts　of　life。　　A　knowledge　of　the　mixture　of　copper；　tin；　and　zinc；

seems　to　have　been　among　the　first　discoveries　of　the　metallurgist。

Instruments　fabricated　from　these　alloys；　recommended　by　the　use　of

ages；　the　perfection　of　the　art；　the　splendour　and　polish　of　their

surfaces；　not　easily　injured　by　time　and　weather；　would　not　soon　be

superseded　by　the　invention　of　simple　iron；　inferior　in　edge　and

polish；　at　all　times　easily　injured　by　rust；　and　in　the　early　stages

of　its　manufacture　converted　with　difficulty　into　forms　that　required

proportion　or　elegance。〃（Papers　on　Iron　and　Steel；　365…6。）　By　some

secret　method　that　has　been　lost；　perhaps　because　no　longer　needed

since　the　invention　of　steel；　the　ancients　manufactured　bronze　tools

capable　of　taking　a　fine　edge。　　in　our　own　time；　Chantrey　the

sculptor；　in　his　reverence　for　classic　metallurgy；　had　a　bronze　razor

made　with　which　he　martyred　himself　in　shaving；　but　none　were　found

so　hardy　and　devoted　as　to　follow　his　example。

　。。。＇

the　latter　metal　continuing　to　be　employed　only　for　the　purpose　of

making　scabbards　or　sword…handles。　　Shortly　after　the　commencement　of

the　iron　age；　the　lake…habitations　were　abandoned；　the　only

settlement　of　this　later　epoch　yet　discovered　being　that　at　Tene；　on

Lake　Neufchatel：　　and　it　is　a　remarkable　circumstance；　showing　the

great　antiquity　of　the　lake…dwellings；　that　they　are　not　mentioned　by

any　of　the　Roman　historians。



That　iron　should　have　been　one　of　the　last　of　the　metals　to　come　into

general　use；　is　partly　accounted　for　by　the　circumstance　that　iron；

though　one　of　the　most　generally　diffused　of　minerals；　never　presents

itself　in　a　natural　state；　except　in　meteorites；　and　that　to

recognise　its　ores；　and　then　to　separate　the　metal　from　its　matrix；

demands　the　exercise　of　no　small　amount　of　observation　and　invention。

Persons　unacquainted　with　minerals　would　be　unable　to　discover　the

slightest　affinity　between　the　rough　ironstone　as　brought　up　from　the

mine；　and　the　iron　or　steel　of　commerce。　　To　unpractised　eyes　they

would　seem　to　possess　no　properties　in　common；　and　it　is　only　after

subjecting　the　stone　to　severe　processes　of　manufacture　that　usable

metal　can　be　　obtained　from　it。　　The　effectual　reduction　of　the　ore

requires　an　intense　heat；　maintained　by　artificial　methods；　such　as

furnaces　and　blowing　apparatus。*

　＇footnote。。。

It　may　be　mentioned　in　passing；　that　while　Zinc　is　fusible　at

3　degrees　of　Wedgwood's　pyrometer；　Silver　at　22　degrees；　Copper　at

27　degrees；　and　Gold　at　32　degrees；　Cast　Iron　is　only　fusible　at

130　degrees。　　Tin　（one　of　the　constituents　of　the　ancient　bronze）　and

Lead　are　fusible　at　much　lower　degrees　than　zinc。

　。。。＇

But　it　is　principally　in　combination　with　other　elements　that　iron　is

so　valuable　when　compared　with　other　metals。　　Thus；　when　combined　with

carbon；　in　varying　proportions；　substances　are　produced；　so

different；　but　each　so　valuable；　that　they　might　almost　be　regarded

in　the　light　of　distinct　metals；such；　for　example；　as　cast…iron；

and　cast　and　bar　steel；　the　various　qualities　of　iron　enabling　it　to

be　used　for　purposes　so　opposite　as　a　steel　pen　and　a　railroad；　the

needle　of　a　mariner's　compass　and　an　Armstrong　gun；　a　surgeon's

lancet　and　a　steam　engine；　the　mainspring　of　a　watch　and　an　iron

ship；　a　pair　of　scissors　and　a　Nasmyth　hammer；　a　lady's　earrings　and

a　tubular　bridge。



The　variety　of　purposes　to　which　iron　is　thus　capable　of　being

applied；　renders　it　of　more　use　to　mankind　than　all　the　other　metals

combined。　　Unlike　iron；　gold　is　found　pure；　and　in　an　almost　workable

state；　and　at　an　erly　period　in　history；　it　seems　to　have　been　much

more　plentiful　than　iron　or　steel。　　But　gold　was　unsuited　for　the

purposes　of　tools；　and　would　serve　for　neither　a　saw；　a　chisel；　an

axe；　nor　a　sword；　whilst　tempered　steel　could　answer　all　these

purposes。　　Hence　we　find　the　early　warlike　nations　making　the　backs　of

their　swords　of　gold　or　copper；　and　economizing　their　steel　to　form

the　cutting　edge。　　This　is　illustrated　by　many　ancient　Scandinavian

weapons　in　the　museum　at　Copenhagen；　which　indicate　the　greatest

parsimony　in　the　use　of　steel　at　a　period　when　both　gold　and　copper

appear　to　have　been　comparatively　abundant。



The　knowledge　of　smelting　and　working　in　iron；　like　most　other　arts；

came　from　the　East。　　Iron　was　especially　valued　for　purposes　of　war；

of　which　indeed　it　was　regarded　as　the　symbol；　being　called　〃Mars〃　by

the　Romans。*

　＇footnote。。。

The　Romans　named　the　other　metals　after　the　gods。　　Thus　Quicksilver

was　called　Mercury；　Lead　Saturn；　Tin　Jupiter；　Copper　Venus；　Silver

Luna；　and　so　on；　and　our　own　language　has　received　a　colouring　from

the　Roman　nomenclature；　which　it　continues　to　retain。

　。。。＇

We　find　frequent　mention　of　it　in　the　Bible。　　One　of　the　earliest

notices　of　the　metal　is　in　connexion　with　the　conquest　of　Judea　by

the　Philistines。　　To　complete　the　subjection　of　the　Israelites；　their

conquerors　made　captive　all　the　smiths　of　the　land；　and　carried　them

away。　　The　Philistines　felt　that　their　hold　of　the　country　was

insecure　so　long　as　the　inhabitants　possessed　the　means　of　forging

weapons。　　Hence　〃there　was　no　smith　found　throughout　all　the　land　of

Israel；　for　the　Philistines　said；　Lest　the　Hebrews　make　them　swords

or　spears。　　But　the　Israelites　went　down　to　the　Philistines；　to

sharpen　every　man　his　share；　and　his　coulter；　and　his　axe；　and　his

mattock。〃*

　＇footnote。。。

I。　　Samuel　xiii。　19；　20。

　。。。＇



At　a　later　period；　when　Jerusalem　was　taken　by　the　Babylonians；　one

of　their　first　acts　was　to　carry　the　smiths　and　other　craftsmen

captives　to　Babylon。*

　＇footnote。。。

II。　　Kings　xxiv。　16。

　。。。＇

Deprived　of　their　armourers；　the　Jews　were　rendered　comparatively

powerless。



It　was　the　knowledge　of　the　art　of　iron…forging　which　laid　the

foundation　of　the　once　great　empire　of　the　Turks。　　Gibbon　relates　that

these　people　were　originally　the　despised　slaves　of　the　powerful　Khan

of　the　Geougen。　　They　occupied　certain　districts　of　the　mountain…ridge

in　the　centre　of　Asia；　called　Imaus；　Caf；　and　Altai；　which　yielded

iron　in　large　quantities。　　This　metal　the　Turks　were　employed　by　the

Khan　to　forge　for　his　use　in　war。　　A　bold　leader　arose　among　them；　who

persuaded　the　ironworkers　that　the　arms　which　they　forged　for　their

masters　might　in　their　own　hands　become　the　instruments　of　freedom。

Sallying　forth　from　their　mountains；　they　set　up　their　standard；　and

their　weapons　soon　freed　them。　　For　centuries　after；　the　Turkish

nation　continued　to　celebrate　the　event　of　their　liberation　by　an

annual　ceremony；　in　which　a　piece　of　iron　was　heated　in　the　fire；　and

a　smith's　hammer　was　successively　handled　by　the　prince　and　his

nobles。



We　can　only　conjecture　how　the　art　of　smelting　iron　was　discovered。

Who　first　applied　fire　to　the　ore；　and　made　it　plastic；　who

discovered　fire　itself；　and　its　uses　in　metallurgy？　No　one　can　tell。

Tradition　says　that　the　metal　was　discovered　through　the　accidental

burning　of　a　wood　in　Greece。　　Mr。　Mushet　thinks　it　more　probable　that

the　discovery　was　made　on　the　conversion　of　wood　into　charcoal　for

culinary　or　chamber　purposes。　　〃If　a　mass　of　ore；〃　he　says；

〃accidentally　dropped　into　the　middle　of　the　burning　pile　during　a

period　of　neglect；　or　during　the　existence　of　a　thorough　draught；　a

mixed　mass；　partly　earthy　and　partly　metallic；　would　be　obtained；

possessing　ductility　and　extension　under　pressure。　　But　if　the

conjecture　is　pushed　still　further；　and　we　suppose　that　the　ore　was

not　an　oxide；　but　rich　in　iron；　magnetic　or　spicular；　the　result

would　in　all　probability　be　a　mass　of　perfectly　malleable　iron。　　I

have　seen　this　fact　illustrated　in　the　roasting　of　a　species　of

iron…stone；　which　was　united　with　a　considera