30+mba-第31章

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conditions。　Every　change　resulted　in　an　improvement　in　productivity；　
except　when　two　10…minute　pauses　morning　and　a。。ernoon　were　expanded　
to　six　5…minute　pauses。　These　frequent　work　pauses；　they　felt；　upset　their　
work　rhythm。　
Mayo’s　conclusion　was　that　showing　‘someone　upstairs　cares’；　engendering　
a　sense　of　ownership　and　responsibility　were　important　
motivators　that　could　be　harnessed　by　management。　A。。er　Mayo　came　
a　flurry　of　theories　on　motivation。　William　McDougall　in　his　book　The　
Energies　of　Men　（1932；　published　by　Methuen）　listed　18　basic　needs　that　
he　referred　to　as　instincts　（eg　curiosity；　sell…assertions；　submission）。　H　A　
Murray；　assistant　director　of　the　Harvard　Psychological　Clinic；　catalogued　
20　core　psychological　needs；　including　achievement；　affiliation　and　power。　
The　motivation　theories　most　studied　and　applied　by　business　school　
graduates　are　those　espoused　by　Maslow　（see　Chapter　3）　and　these　below。　
Theory　X　and　theory　Y　
Douglas　McGregor；　an　American　social　psychologist　who　taught　at　two　
top　schools；　Harvard　and　the　Massachuse。。s　Institute　of　Technology　（MIT）；　
developed　these　theories　to　try　to　explain　the　assumptions　about　human　
behaviour　that　underlies　management　action。　
Theory　‘X’　makes　the　following　assumptions：　
。　The　average　person　has　an　inherent　dislike　of　work　and　will　avoid　it　
if　possible。　So　management　needs　to　put　emphasis　on　productivity；　
incentive　schemes　and　the　idea　of　a　‘fair　day’s　work’。　
。　Because　of　this　dislike　of　work；　most　people　must　be　coerced；　controlled；　
directed　and　threatened　with　punishment　to　get　them　to　achieve　the　
pany’s　goals。　
。　People　prefer　to　be　directed；　want　to　avoid　responsibility；　have　li。。le　
ambition　and　really　want　a　secure　life　above　all。　
But；　while　Theory　‘X’　does　explain　some　human　behaviour；　it　does　not　
provide　a　framework　for　understanding　behaviour　in　the　best　businesses。　
McGregor；　and　others；　have　proposed　an　alternative。　
Theory　‘Y’　has　as　its　basis　the　belief　that：　
。　Physical　or　mental　effort　at　work　is　as　natural　as　either　rest　or　play。　
Under　the　right　conditions；　hard　work　can　be　source　of　great　satisfaction。　
Under　the　wrong　conditions　it　can　be　a　drudge；　which　will　inspire　li。。le　
effort　and　less　thought　from　those　forced　to　participate。　
。　Once　mi。。ed　to　a　goal；　most　people　at　work　are　capable　of　a　high　
degree　of　self…management。
142　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
。　Job　satisfaction　and　personal　recognition　are　the　highest　‘rewards’　that　
can　be　given；　and　will　result　in　the　greatest　level　of　mitment　to　the　
task　in　hand。　
。　Under　the　right　conditions；　most　people　will　accept　responsibility　and　
even　wele　more　of　it。　
。　Few　people　in　business　are　being　‘used’　to　anything　like　their　capacity。　
Neither　are　they　contributing　creatively　towards　solving　problems。　
A　typical　Theory…X　boss　is　likely　to　keep　away　from　their　employees　as　
much　as　possible。　However　small　the　business；　for　example；　they　may　make　
sure　that　they　have　an　office　to　themselves；　and　its　door　is　kept　tightly　shut。　
Contact　with　others　will　be　confined　to　giving　instructions　about　work　and　
plaining　about　poor　performance。　A　Theory…Y　approach　will　involve　
collaborating　over　decisions　rather　than　issuing　orders；　and　sharing　
feedback　so　that　everyone　can　learn　from　both　success　and　failures；　rather　
than　just　reprimanding　when　things　go　wrong。　
Hygiene　and　motivation　theory　
Frederick　Hertzberg；　professor　of　psychology　at　Case　Western　Reserve　
University　in　Cleveland；　United　States；　discovered　that　distinctly　separate　
factors　were　the　cause　of　job　satisfaction　and　job　dissatisfaction。　His　research　
revealed　that　five　factors　stood　out　as　strong　determinants　of　job　
satisfaction。　
Motivators　
。　Achievement：　People　want　to　succeed；　so　if　you　can　set　goals　that　people　
can　reach　and　be。。er；　they　will　be　much　more　satisfied　than　if　they　are　
constantly　missing　targets。　
。　Recognition：　Everyone　likes　their　hard　work　to　be　acknowledged。　Not　
everyone　wants　that　recognition　made　in　the　same　way；　however。　
。　Responsibility：　People　like　the　opportunity　to　take　responsibility　
for　their　own　work　and　for　the　whole　task。　This　helps　them　grow　as　
individuals。　
。　Advancement：　Promotion　or　at　any　rate　progress　are　key　motivators。　
In　a　small　firm；　providing　career　prospects　for　key　staff　can　be　a　fundamental　
reason　for　growth。　
。　The　a。。ractiveness　of　work　itself　（job　interest）：　There　is　no　reason　why　a　
job　should　be　dull。　You　need　to　make　people’s　jobs　interesting　and　give　
them　a　say　in　how　their　work　is　done。　That　will　encourage　new　ideas　on　
how　things　can　be　done　be。。er。　
When　the　reasons　for　dissatisfaction　were　analysed　they　were　found　to　be　
concerned　with　a　different　range　of　factors。
Organizational　Behaviour　143　
Hygiene　factors　
。　pany　policy：　Rules；　formal　and　informal；　such　as　start　and　finish　
times；　meal　breaks；　dress　code。　
。　Supervision：　To　what　extent　are　employees　allowed　to　get　on　with　the　
job；　or　do　people　have　someone　looking　over　their　shoulders　all　day？　
。　Administration：　Do　things　work　well；　or　is　paperwork　in　a　muddle　and　
supplies　always　e　in　late？　
。　Salary：　Are　employees　ge。。ing　at　least　the　going　rate　and　benefits　
parable　with　others？　
。　Working　conditions：　Are　people　expected　to　work　in　substandard　
conditions　with　poor　equipment　and　li。。le　job　security？　
。　Interpersonal　relationships：　Is　the　atmosphere　in　work　good　or　are　
people　at　daggers　drawn？　
Hertzberg　called　these　causes　of　dissatisfaction　‘hygiene　factors’。　He　
reasoned　that　the　lack　of　hygiene　will　cause　disease；　but　the　presence　of　
hygienic　conditions　will　not；　of　itself；　produce　good　health。　So　the　lack　of　
adequate　‘job　hygiene’　will　cause　dissatisfaction　but　hygienic　conditions　
alone　will　not　bring　about　job　satisfaction；　to　do　that　you　have　to　work　on　
the　determinants　of　job　satisfaction。　
Other　theories　of　motivation　
There　are　a　plethora　of　theories　of　how　to　motivate　people　at　work　and　elsewhere。　
（See　the　partial　list　below。）　As　the　subject　has　matured；　researchers　
have　segmented　the　market　into　ever…smaller　sub…topics；　for　example　
focusing　on　certain　subgroups；　difficult　people　for　example；　or　special　situations　
such　as　a。。er　a　merger　or　closure　of　part　of　a　business。　
。　Achievement　motivation　theory　（Atkinson；　1964）　
。　Action…oute　expectancy　（Heckhausen；　1991）　
。　A。。ributional　theory　of　achievement　motivation　（Weiner；　1972）　
。　Cognitive　dissonance　theory　（Festinger；　1957）　
。　Effectance　motivation　（White；　1959；　Harter；　1978a）　
。　Expectancy　times　value　theory　（Vroom；　1964）　
。　Goal…se。。ing　theory　（Locke；　1968）　
。　Intrinsic　motivation　（Deci；　1975）　
。　Learned　helplessness　theory　（Seligman；　1975）　
。　Neuro…linguistic　programming　–　NLP　（Bandler　and　Grinder；　1976）　
。　Reactance　theory　（Brehm；　1966）　
。　Self…efficacy　theory　（Bandura；　1977）　
The　guiding　principle　for　all　motivation　practice　is　that　people　respond　
to　a　much　wider　range　of　stimulations　other　than　life　and　death；　fear　and　
144　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
greed　or　stick　and　carrot。　There　is　a　thumbnail　sketch　of　the　50　or　so　people　
whose　theories　on　motivation　and　organizations　have　brought　them　to　
prominence　and　that　an　MBA　should　have　at　least　an　appreciation　of　at　this　
website　（onepine。info/people。htm）。　
LEADERSHIP　
However　great　the　employees　are；　unless　a　business　has　effective　leadership　
nothing　of　great　value　can　be　made　to　happen。　While　the　boss　may　have　a　
pre。。y　clear　idea　of　what　the　business　is　all　about　and　what　makes　it　special　
and　different；　it　may　not　be　so　clear　to　those　who　work　further　down。　
Employees　o。。en　just　keep　their　heads　down　and　get　on　with　the　task　in　
hand。　While　that’s　a　useful　trait；　it　is　not　sufficient　to　make　a　business　a　
great　place　to　work。　To　make　that　happen；　the　boss　has　to　have　a　precise　
idea　of　where　the　business　is　heading　and　use　their　leadership　skills　to　
achieve　results。　
Tasks　
Leaders　have　three　major　tasks：　to　determine　the　direction；　chart　the　course　
and　set　the　goals。　The　direction　of　a　business　has　a　number　of　ponents　
that　can　be　best　understood　if　thought　of　as　being　parts　of　a　pyramid。　（See　
Figure　4。8。）　
Figure　4。8　The　purpose　pyramid　
Action　plans　
Key　tasks　
Objectives　
Mission　
Start　the　
planning　
process　
Derive　
from　the　
planning　
process　
Vision　
A　vision　is　about　stretching　the　organization’s　reach　beyond　its　grasp。　Few　
now　can　see　how　the　vision　can　be　achieved；　but　can　see　that　it　would　be　
great　if　it　could　be　done。
Organizational　Behaviour　145　
Microso。。’s　vision　of　a　puter　in　every　home；　formed　when　few　offices　
had　one；　is　one　example　of　a　vision　that　has　nearly　been　reached。　As　a　
mission　statement　in　1990　it　might　have　raised　a　wry　smile。　A。。er　all；　it　was　
only　a　few　decades　before　then　that　IBM　had　estimated　the　entire　world　
demand　for　its　puters　as　seven！　
NASDAQ；　the　entrepreneurs’　stock　market；　has　as　its　vision：　To　build　the　
world’s　first　truly　global　securities　market。　‘A　world…wide　market　of　markets　
built　on　a　world…wide　network　of　network　linking　pools　of　liquidity　and　
connecting　investors　from　all　over　the　world　thus　assuring　the　best　possible　
price　for　securities　at　the　lowest　possible　costs。’　That　certainly　points　to　
beyond　the　horizon　envisaged　by　business　today。　
Having　a　vision　will　make　it　easier　to　get　employees　to　buy　into　a　longterm　
mitment　to　a　business　–　they　will　see　that　they　could　have　career　
opportunities　and　progression　in　an　organization　that　knows　where　it　is　
going。　
Mission　
A　mission　is　a　direction　statement；　intended　to　focus　your　a。。ention　on　the　
essentials　that　encapsulate　your　specific　petence（s）　in　relation　to　the　
market/customers　you　plan　to　serve。　First；　the　mission　should　be　narrow　
enough　to　give　direction　and　guidance　to　everyone　in　the　business。　This　
concentration　is　the　key　to　business　success　because　it　is　only　by　focusing　
on　specific　needs　that　a　small　business　can　differentiate　itself　from　its　larger　
petitors。　Nothing　kills　off　a　business　faster　than　trying　to　do　too　many　
different　things　too　soon。　Second；　the　mission　should　open　up　a　large　
enough　market　to　allow　the　business　to　grow　and　realize　its　potential。　You　
can　always　add　a　bit　on　later。　
In　summary；　the　mission　statement　should　explain：　
。　what　business　you　are　in　and　your　purpose；　
。　what　you　want　to　achieve　over　the　next　one　to　three　years；　ie　your　
strategic　goal；　
。　how；　ie　your　ethics；　values　and　standards。　
Above　all；　mission　statements　must　be　realistic；　achievable　–　and　brief。　
Objectives　
The　milestones　on　the　way　to　realizing　the　vision　and　mission　are　measured　
by　the　achievement　of　business　objectives。　These　objectives　‘cascade’　
through　the　organization　from　the　top；　where　they　are　measures　of　profit；　
through　to　measures　such　as　output；　quality；　reject　rates；　absenteeism　and　
so　forth。
146　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
Objective　se。。ing　is　a　primary　process　in　which　clear　performance　measures　
are　agreed　with　every　employee。　The　achievement　of　specific　objectives　is　
the　ultimate　measure　of　effective　leadership。　
MANAGEMENT　
Leadership　and　management　are　not　the　same　thing；　but　you　need　both。　A　
leader　challeng